Diabetes

Question 1

What links the organs of the endocrine system together?

Answer 1

Hormonal signalling via chemical messengers (hormones) in the bloodstream.

Question 2

What are autocrine hormones?

Answer 2

Hormones that act on the same cell that secretes them.

Question 3

What are paracrine hormones?

Answer 3

Hormones that act on nearby cells in the same environment.

Question 4

What hormone does the pineal gland release?

Answer 4

Melatonin.

Question 5

What does the heart release when the atria are stretched?

Answer 5

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP), which helps regulate blood volume.

Question 6

What are three ways endocrine glands are stimulated to release hormones?

Answer 6

Neural signals, mechanical/functional signals, and hormonal signals.

Question 7

What determines the effect of a hormone?

Answer 7

The presence and type of receptor it binds to, not the hormone itself.

Question 8

What are the types of adrenergic receptors and their effects?

Answer 8

Alpha-1 (vasoconstriction), Beta-1 (↑ heart rate and contractility), Beta-2 (bronchodilation and vasodilation).

Question 9

What are the major systemic functions of the endocrine system?

Answer 9

Metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, mood, and sleep cycles.

Question 10

What causes most endocrine diseases?

Answer 10

Disruption in hormone regulation leading to hypersecretion or hyposecretion.

Question 11

What are common causes of endocrine dysfunction?

Answer 11

Tumours, trauma, infarction, infection, iatrogenic effects, congenital, and idiopathic causes.

Question 12

What are the two parts of the pituitary gland?

Answer 12

Anterior (glandular tissue) and posterior (neural tissue).

Question 13

What are the five major hormones released by the anterior pituitary?

Answer 13

Growth hormone, LH/FSH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin.

Question 14

What does ADH do in the body?

Answer 14

Promotes water reabsorption in kidneys to conserve water and raise BP.

Question 15

What condition results from lack of ADH?

Answer 15

Diabetes insipidus.

Question 16

What are clinical features of diabetes insipidus?

Answer 16

Extreme polyuria, polydipsia, dehydration, hypernatremia, low urine specific gravity.

Question 17

What is SIADH and what does it cause?

Answer 17

Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion; causes water retention and hyponatremia.

Question 18

What is the cause of pituitary dwarfism?

Answer 18

Hypopituitarism – decreased growth hormone secretion.

Question 19

What is gigantism caused by?

Answer 19

Hypersecretion of growth hormone before skeletal maturity.

Question 20

What is acromegaly?

Answer 20

Excess GH after skeletal maturity – causes enlarged features and internal organ changes.

Question 21

What are the two thyroid hormones?

Answer 21

Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3).

Question 22

What is needed to synthesise T3 and T4?

Answer 22

Iodine.

Question 23

What does hypothyroidism cause?

Answer 23

Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, bradycardia, depression, dry skin.

Question 24

What is the treatment for hypothyroidism?

Answer 24

Levothyroxine (synthetic T4).

Question 25

What is myxedema coma?

Answer 25

A rare, life-threatening complication of untreated hypothyroidism.

Question 26

What condition involves autoimmune stimulation of the TSH receptor?

Answer 26

Graves’ disease (causing hyperthyroidism).

Question 27

What are symptoms of thyrotoxicosis?

Answer 27

Weight loss, tachycardia, AF, anxiety, heat intolerance, tremors.

Question 28

What is thyroid storm?

Answer 28

A life-threatening emergency from extreme thyrotoxicosis.

Question 29

What are signs of thyroid storm?

Answer 29

Fever, extreme tachycardia, delirium, seizures, coma.

Question 30

What do the parathyroid glands regulate?

Answer 30

Plasma calcium levels.

Question 31

What hormone increases calcium levels?

Answer 31

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).

Question 32

What hormone decreases calcium levels?

Answer 32

Calcitonin.

Question 33

What are symptoms of hypercalcemia?

Answer 33

"Bones, stones, groans, and psychiatric moans" – fractures, kidney stones, GI pain, confusion.

Question 34

Where are the adrenal glands located?

Answer 34

On top of each kidney.

Question 35

What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?

Answer 35

Aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.

Question 36

What does aldosterone do?

Answer 36

Promotes Na⁺ and water retention, and K⁺ loss.

Question 37

What is the primary glucocorticoid?

Answer 37

Cortisol.

Question 38

What are the effects of cortisol?

Answer 38

Increases glucose production, suppresses inflammation, helps respond to stress.

Question 39

What condition is caused by adrenal insufficiency?

Answer 39

Addison’s disease.

Question 40

What are symptoms of Addison’s disease?

Answer 40

Fatigue, hypotension, hyperkalemia, weight loss, vomiting.

Question 41

What can trigger adrenal crisis?

Answer 41

Stress, surgery, infection without steroid coverage.

Question 42

What are symptoms of adrenal crisis?

Answer 42

Hypotension, hypoglycaemia, vomiting, altered LOC, vascular collapse.

Question 43

What is the treatment for adrenal crisis?

Answer 43

IV fluids, hydrocortisone, glucose/glucagon, electrolyte correction.

Question 44

What is Cushing’s syndrome caused by?

Answer 44

Excess cortisol – from tumours or long-term steroid therapy.

Question 45

What are signs of Cushing’s syndrome?

Answer 45

Moon face, buffalo hump, striae, muscle weakness, HTN, hyperglycaemia, mood changes.

Question 46

What is Conn’s syndrome?

Answer 46

Hyperaldosteronism – leads to HTN, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis.

Question 47

What is a phaeochromocytoma?

Answer 47

Adrenal medulla tumour causing catecholamine hypersecretion.

Question 48

What are signs of phaeochromocytoma?

Answer 48

Intermittent hypertension, tachycardia, sweating, headache, anxiety.

Question 49

How is phaeochromocytoma managed?

Answer 49

Alpha- and beta-blockers, adrenalectomy, anti-hypertensives.