Early Childhood Flashcards
(266 cards)
1
Q
Most young children lose their ____and their legs and trunks become longer.
A
baby fat
2
Q
who clearly understand how young children develop can play an active role in creating programs that foster their natural interest in learning, rather than stifling it.
A
Parents and educators
3
Q
is the obvious physical change that characterizes early childhood.
A
Growth in height and weight
4
Q
The average child grows 2% inches in height and gains 5 to 10 pounds a year during early childhood.
A
5
Q
As the preschool child grows older, the percentage of increase in height and weight ____ with each additional year
A
decreases
5
Q
Girls have more ___ tissue than boys; boys have more _____ tissue
A
fatty
muscle
6
Q
The ____often looks much leaner by the end of early childhood.
A
chubby baby
7
Q
also shows a slow, steady decline during the preschool years.
A
Body fat
8
Q
During the ____, both boys and girls slim down as the trunks of their bodies lengthen.
A
preschool years
9
Q
is the absence or deficiency of growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland to stimulate the body to grow
A
Growth hormone deficiency
10
Q
By the age of 6, the brain has reached about _____ of its adult size
A
95 percent
11
Q
One of the most important physical developments during early childhood is the continuing development of the ____ and _____
A
brain
nervous system
12
Q
children from the ____ had significant maturational lags in their _____ lobes at 4 years of age, and these lags were associated with lower attainment of school readiness skills
A
poorest homes
frontal and temporal
13
Q
At _____ years of age, children enjoy simple movements, such as hopping, jumping, and running back and forth.
A
3
14
Q
At ____ years of age, children are still enjoying the same kind of activities, but they have become more adventurous.
A
4
15
Q
At _____ years of age, although children have had the ability to pick up the tiniest objects between their thumb and forefinger for some time, they are still somewhat clumsy at it.
A
3
16
Q
By age ____, children’s fine motor coordination has improved further. Hand, arm, and body all move together under better command of the eye.
A
5
17
Q
Sometimes ____-old children have trouble building high towers with blocks because, in their attempts to place each of the blocks perfectly, they may upset those already stacked
A
4-year
18
Q
____ can build surprisingly high block towers, placing each block with intense concentration but often not in a completely straight line
A
Three-year-olds
19
Q
When children are about _____, their eye muscles usually are developed enough that they can move their eyes efficiently across a series of letters.
A
4 or 5 years old
20
Q
Many preschool children are ______, unable to see close up as well as they can see far away. By the time they enter the first grade, though, most children can focus their eyes and sustain their attention effectively on close-up objects
A
farsighted
21
Q
At ____ years of age, children are even more adventurous than when they were 4.
A
5
22
Q
Experts recommend that young children get _____ hours of sleep each night
A
11 to 13
23
Q
(difficulty getting to sleep or staying asleep)
A
insomnia
24
(extreme daytime sleepiness)
narcolepsy
25
Young children's eating behavior is strongly influenced by their ____ behavior
caregivers'
26
A sensitive/ responsive caregiver feeding style, in which the caregiver is ____, provides clear information about what is expected, and appropriately responds to children's cues, is recommended
nurturant
27
Young children from _____ families are the most likely to develop _____
low-income
iron deficiency anemia
28
which results in chronic fatigue. This problem results from the failure to eat adequate amounts of quality meats and dark green vegetables.
iron deficiency anemia
29
is an especially strong risk factor for malnutrition in young children
Poverty
30
The guidelines recommend that young children get ______ of physical activity per hour over a _____ period, or about
____per day total
15 or more minutes
12-hour
3 hours
31
four expert panels from _____ issued physical activity guidelines for young children that were quite similar
Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States
32
In the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of young children who have died because ______ was transmitted to them by their parents
HIV/AIDS
33
The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately ______ of age, is the second Piagetian stage
2 to 7 years
34
The label preoperational emphasizes that the child does not yet perform _____, which are reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what before they could do only physically.
operations
35
At the same time, the young child's cognitive world is dominated by ____
egocentrism and magical beliefs
36
In this stage, children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. They form stable concepts and begin to reason.
Preoperational
37
2 stages of Preoperational
symbolic function substage
Intuitive thought substage
38
____ are examples of operations.
Adding and subtracting numbers mentally
39
is the beginning of the ability to reconstruct in thought what has been established in behavior.
Preoperational thought
40
is the first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 and 4.
symbolic function substage
41
another limitation of preoperational thought, is the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
Animism
42
is the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective.
Egocentrism
43
Young children use _____ to represent people, houses, cars, clouds, and so on; they begin to use language and engage in pretend play.
scribble designs
44
the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present.
symbolic function substage
45
is the second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between approximately 4 and 7 years of age.
intuitive thought substage
46
Piaget called this substage ____ because young children seem so sure about their knowledge and understanding yet are unaware of how they know what they know. That is, they know something but know it without the use of rational thinking.
intuitive
47
By the age of ____, children have just about exhausted the adults around them with "why" questions. The child's questions signal the emergence of interest in reasoning and in figuring out why things are the way they are.
5
48
In this substage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions.
intuitive thought substage
49
In this substage, children begin to use _____ and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions.
primitive reasoning
50
One limitation of preoperational thought is , a
centration
51
centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
centration
52
the awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.
conservation
53
Centration is most clearly evidenced in young children's lack of _____
conservation
54
They develop their ways of thinking and understanding primarily through social interaction
Vygotsky's theory
55
children are more often described as social creatures than in Piaget's theory
Vygotsky's theory
56
children develop ways of thinking and understanding by their actions and interactions with the physical world.
Piaget's theory
57
is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor.
upper limit
58
is the level of skill reached by the child working independently.
Lower limit
59
is Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
60
Level of problem solving reached on these tasks by child working alone
Lower limit
61
Level of additional responsibility child can accept with assistance of an able instructor
Upper limit
62
is an instructional practice where a teacher gradually removes guidance and support as students learn and become more competent. Support can be for content, processes, and learning strategies.
Scaffolding
63
means changing the level of support.
Scaffolding
64
This use of language for self-regulation is called
private speech
65
According to _____, children use speech not only to communicate socially but also help them solve tasks.
Lev Vygotsky
66
The use of ______ as a tool for scaffolding is only one example of the important role of language in a child's development.
dialogue
67
When they gain this skill, children have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of ______, which becomes their thoughts.
inner speech
68
the _____ becomes second nature to children, and they can act without verbalizing.
self-talk
69
This transition period occurs between _____ years of age and involves talking to oneself.
3 and 7
70
Children also must communicate _____ and use language for a long period of time before they can make the transition from external to internal speech.
externally
71
Children must use _____ to communicate with others before they can focus inward on their own thoughts.
language
72
Vygotsky said that language and thought initially develop ____ of each other and then merge
independently
73
Vygotsky's theory takes a ______ approach, which emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction
social constructivist
74
In both Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories, teachers serve as facilitators and guides, rather than as ______ of learning
directors and molders
75
Criticisms of Vygotsky's theory also have surfaced. Some critics point out that Vygotsky was not specific enough about _____
age-related changes
76
Young children especially make advances in two aspects of attention
executive attention
sustained attention
77
Is focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment.
Sustained attention
78
Sustained attention also is called
vigilance
79
involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
Executive attention
80
the retention of information over time
Memory
81
is a central process in children's cognitive development.
Memory
82
Most of a young infant's memories are _____ and, for the most part, short-lived-except for the memory of perceptual-motor actions, which can be substantial
fragile
83
(repeating information after it has been presented)
rehearsal
84
individuals retain information for up to 30 seconds if there is no rehearsal of the information.
Short term memory
85
involves memory of significant events and experiences in one's life.
Autobiographical memory
86
From _____ years of age, they (1) increasingly remember events as occurring at a specific time and location and, (2) include more elements that are rich in detail in their narratives
3-5
87
involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self- control
Executive function
88
An umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex
executive function
89
Studies of ______view the child as "a thinker who is trying to explain, predict, and understand people's thoughts, feelings, and utterances"
theory of mind
90
which refers to awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others
theory of mind
91
From ______, children begin to understand three mental states
18 months to 3 years of age
92
3 mental states
Perception
Emotions
Desire
93
By _____ of age, a child recognizes that
another person will see what's in front of her own eyes instead of what's in front of the child's eyes
2 years
94
by _____ of age, the child realizes that looking leads to knowing what's inside a container
3 years
95
Toddlers recognize that if people want something, they will try to get it.
Desires
96
The child can distinguish between positive and
negative emotions.
Emotions
97
understand the way that desires are related to actions and to simple emotions.
Two- to three-year-olds
98
By the time children are _____, they can produce all the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds
3 years of age
99
During the preschool years, most children gradually become more _____ to the sounds of spoken words and become increasingly capable of producing all the sounds of their language
sensitive
100
As children move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate a knowledge of _____
morphology rules
101
which involves children's ability to make an initial connection between a word and its referent after only limited exposure to the word
fast mapping
102
Why can children learn so many new words so quickly?
fast mapping
103
By the time they enter first grade, it is estimated that children know about _____
14,000 words
104
Some experts have concluded that between ______, young children learn approximately one new word every waking hour
18 months and 6 years of age
105
They show a growing mastery of complex rules for how words should be ordered
Preschool children - syntax
106
six key principles in young children's vocabulary development
Children learn the words they hear most often
Children learn words for things and events that interest them.
Children learn words better in responsive and interactive contexts than in passive contexts
Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful.
Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning
Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered.
107
are more effective in regulating their negative affect, and have fewer behavior problems than the children of emotion-dismissing parents
emotion-coaching parents
108
interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, use more scaffolding and praise, and are more nurturant than are emotion-dismissing parents.
Emotion-coaching parents
109
Around ____ years of age, children learn to change their speech style to suit the situation.
4 to 5
110
, the appropriate use of language in different contexts, also characterize young children's language development
pragmatics
111
For example, even 4-year-old children speak to a 2-year-old differently from the way they speak to a same-aged peer. They also speak differently to an adult and to a same-aged peer, using more polite and formal language with the adult
pragmatics
112
Nurturing is a key aspect of the child-centered kindergarten, which emphasizes the education of the whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development
The Child-Centered Kindergarten.
113
is on the process of learning, rather than what is learned
Emphasis
114
is organized around the child's needs, interests, and learning styles.
Instruction
115
The child-centered kindergarten honors three principles:
(1) each child follows a unique developmental pattern;
(2) young children learn best through firsthand experiences with people and materials
(3) play is extremely important in the child's total development.
116
Frequent activities in excellent kindergarten programs.
Experimenting
exploring
discovering
Trying out
Restructuring
speaking
Listening
117
are patterned after the educational philosophy of Maria Montessori
Montessori schools
118
an Italian physician-turned-educator who at the beginning of the twentieth century crafted a revolutionary approach to young children's education.
Maria Montessori (1870- 1952)
119
is a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities. They are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a director. The teacher shows the child how to perform intellectual activities, demonstrates interesting ways to explore curriculum materials, and offers help when the child requests it
Montessori approach
120
emphasizes the importance of creating settings that encourage active learning and reflect children's interests and capabilities.
DAP
121
which is based on knowledge of the typical development of children within an age span (age-appropriateness), as well as the uniqueness of the child (individual-appropriateness).
developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)
122
Two current controversies in early childhood education
Curriculum Controversy.
Universal Preschool Education
123
also is a central characteristic of the infant's profile, and some temperament styles are more adaptive than others.
Temperament
124
development of _____ in the second year of life also signals an important accomplishment.
autonomy
125
Development of a ______is a key aspect of infant development
secure attachment
126
Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood is
initiative versus guilt
127
The great governor of initiative is
conscience
128
Early self-understanding involves ____.
self-recognition
129
which is the representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions
self- understanding
130
Young children's theory of mind includes understanding that other people have emotions and desires
Understanding Others.
131
As children approach their ____ birthday, their collaborative interactions with others increasingly involve obligations to the partner
third
132
about _____ years, children not only start describing themselves in terms of psychological traits, but they also begin to perceive others in terms of psychological traits
4 to 5
133
. Recent research studies have revealed that young children are more psychologically aware-of themselves and others-than used to be thought
Self-Understanding and Understanding Others
134
During the early childhood years, emotions such as _____ become more common.
pride and guilt
135
do not appear to develop until self-awareness occurs at approximately 15 to 18 months of age.
Self-conscious emotions
136
are examples of self-conscious emotions
Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt
137
One of the most important advances in emotional development in early childhood is an increased _____
understanding of emotion
138
Between _____ years of age, children considerably increase the number of terms they use to describe emotions.
2 and 4
139
When they are ______ years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. They also begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people. Moreover, they show a growing awareness that they need to manage their emotions to meet social standards.
4 to 5
140
is an important aspect of development. It's especially plays a key role in children's ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others
Emotion regulation
141
Many researchers consider the growth of emotion regulation in children as fundamental to becoming _____
socially competent
142
especially plays a key role in children's ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others
Emotion regulation
143
view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.
emotion-dismissing parents
144
monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions. In contrast
Emotion-coaching parents
145
A recent study found that young children with ______ were more popular with their peers
higher emotion regulation
146
______ are more likely to experience rejection by their peers, whereas _______ are more popular.
Moody and emotionally negative children
emotionally positive children
147
play a strong role in determining the success of a child's peer relationships (Smetana & Ball, 2018). Specifically, the ability to modulate one's emotions is an important skill that benefits children in their relationships with peers.
Emotions
148
From about 4 to 7 years of age, children display ______
heteronomous morality
149
Children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
150
From about ______ of age, children display heteronomous morality.
4 to 7 years
151
According to _____, children attempt to reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affection by identifying with parents and internalizing their standards of right and wrong, thus forming the superego-the moral element of personality.
Freud
152
Feelings of ______ are central to the account of moral development provided by Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory.
anxiety and guilt
153
also believes in immanent justice, the concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.
heteronomous thinker
154
Because young children are ______, they judge the rightness or goodness of behavior by considering its consequences, not the intentions of the actor.
heteronomous moralists
155
At about ______, children show autonomous morality.
10 years of age and older
156
At about 10 years of age and older, children show ______
autonomous morality
157
They become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in judging an action they consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences
autonomous morality
158
From ______ of age, children are in a transition showing some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and some stages of the
second stage, autonomous morality
7 to 10 years
159
Older children, who are _______, recognize that punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing and that even then, punishment is not inevitable
moral autonomists
160
also implies that if something unfortunate happens to someone, the person must have transgressed earlier.
Immanent justice
161
refers to an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves an integration of all three components of moral development-moral thought, feeling, and behavior
Conscience
162
three components of moral development
-moral thought, feeling, and behavior
163
when children are punished for immoral behavior, those behaviors are likely to be ____
reduced or eliminated.
164
When models who behave morally are provided, children are likely to ____ their actions.
adopt
165
When children are rewarded for behavior that is consistent with laws and social conventions, they are likely to _____ that behavior
repeat
166
According to _______, young children are moral apprentices, striving to understand what is moral.
Ross Thompson's (2006, 2009, 2012)
167
include responding appropriately to parents' initiatives and maintaining a positive relationship with parents.
Children's obligations
168
include engaging in positive caregiving and guiding children to become competent human beings.
Parents' obligations
169
introduce children to the mutual obligations of close relationships
Parent-child relationships
170
Among the most important aspects of the relationship between parents and children that contribute to children's moral development are
relational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and conversational dialogue.
171
With _____ children, being proactive may involve talking with them about values that the parents deem important.
older
172
With ____ children, being proactive means using diversion, such as distracting their attention or moving them to alternative activities.
younger
173
involves a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male or female
Gender identity
174
refers to the characteristics of people as males and females.
Gender
175
An important parenting strategy involves ______by children before it takes place
proactively averting potential misbehavior
176
refers to acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
Gender typing
177
For example, fighting is more characteristic of a traditional masculine role and crying is more characteristic of a traditional feminine role
Gender typing
178
are sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel
Gender roles
179
One aspect of gender identity involves knowing whether you are a girl or boy, an awareness that most children develop by about _____ years of age
2 1/2%
180
clearly plays a role in gender development (Lickliter, 2018; Mason & others, 2018). Among the possible biological influences are chromosomes, hormones, and evolution
Biology
181
such as testosterone, promote the development of male physical sex characteristics.
Androgens
182
such as estradiol, influence the development of female physical sex characteristics.
Estrogens
183
The two main classes of sex hormones
estrogens and androgens
184
are secreted by the gonads
estrogens and androgens
185
play a key role in the development of sex differences
hormones
186
secrete copious amounts of the class of hormones known as androgens.
testes
187
start to differ from females when genes on the Y chromosome in the male embryo trigger the development of testes rather than ovaries
Males
188
adaptation during human evolution produced psychological differences between males and females (Antfolk, 2018; Buss, 2012, 2015). Because of their differing roles in reproduction, males and females faced differing pressures when the human species was evolving
Evolutionary Psychology
189
contributions to the gene pool were improved when they secured resources that ensured that their offspring would survive.
females'
190
evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking
males
191
Three main social theories of gender have been proposed
social role theory
psychoanalytic theory
social cognitive theory
192
proposed social role theory
Alice Eagly
193
which states that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men.
social role theory
194
This is the process known as the Oedipus (for boys) or Electra (for girls) complex.
psychoanalytic theory of gender
195
stems from Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent.
psychoanalytic theory of gender
196
At _____ years of age, the child renounces this attraction because of anxious feelings. Subsequently, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same- sex parent's characteristics.
5 or 6
197
children's gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender- inappropriate behavior
social cognitive theory of gender
198
In fact, peers become so important to gender development that the playground has been called
Gender school
199
provide the earliest discrimination of gender roles, but ____ soon join the process of responding to and modeling masculine and feminine behavior
Parents
Peers
200
, by action and by example, influence their children's gender development (Brannon, 2017; Endendijk & others, 2017; Helgeson, 2017; Leaper & Bigler, 2018; Liben, 2017). Both mothers and fathers are psychologically important to their children's gender development (Leaper, 2015).
Parental Influences Parents
201
It influences the composition of children's groups, the size of groups, and interactions within a group
Gender molds
202
Boys are more likely than girls to engage in rough-and tumble play, competition, conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and quests for dominance. By contrast, girls are more likely to engage in "collaborative discourse," in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner
Interaction in same-sex groups.
203
is also shaped by other relationships and by temperament, contexts, and social experiences during early childhood and later.
Social and emotional development
204
to a caregiver is a key social relationship during infancy; however, some experts maintain that secure attachment and other aspects of the infant years have been overdramatized as determinants of life-span development.
Attachment
205
is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guides an individual's perceptions.
schema
206
which states that gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
gender schema theory
207
four types of parenting styles
Authoritarian parenting
Authoritative parenting
Neglectful parenting
Indulgent parenting
208
argues that parents should be neither punitive nor aloof. Rather, they should develop rules for their children and be affectionate with them.
Diana Baumrind
209
A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.
Indulgent parenting
210
A style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life; this style is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control
Neglectful parenting
211
encourages children to be independent but
still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturing toward the child.
Authoritative parenting
212
is a restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and respect their work and effort.
Authoritarian parenting
213
is outlawed in 41 countries, with an increasing number of countries banning physical punishment mainly to protect children from abuse and exploitation (Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2014)
physical punishment
214
protect children from abuse and exploitation
Committee on the Rights of the Child
215
such as spanking, has been considered a necessary and even desirable method of disciplining children.
corporal (physical) punishment
216
Fourth, much of the parenting style research has involved ____, not fathers.
mothers
217
Third, some critics argue that the concept of parenting style is too broad and that more research needs to be conducted to "_____" parenting styles by studying various components that compose the styles
unpack
218
Second, many parents use a combination of techniques rather than a ______ although one technique may be dominant.
single technique
219
First, the parenting styles do not capture the important themes of reciprocal _____ and _____.
socialization
synchrony
220
This term does not have quite the emotional impact of the term abuse and acknowledges that maltreatment includes diverse conditions.
child maltreatment
221
Refer to both abuse and neglect
child abuse
222
(psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury) includes acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
Emotional abuse
223
includes fondling a child's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials
Sexual abuse
224
is characterized by failure to provide for the child's basic needs (Naughton & others, 2017). Neglect can be physical, educational, or emotional
Child neglect
225
is characterized by the infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child
Physical abuse
226
Types of Child Maltreatment
Physical abuse
Child neglect
Sexual abuse
Emotional abuse
227
during the _____, individuals who were maltreated as children are more likely to experience physical ailments, mental problems, and sexual problems (Lacelle & others, 2012).
adult years
228
Among the consequences of child maltreatment in _____ are poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and other psychological problems such as depression and delinquency
childhood and adolescence
229
The _____ itself is obviously a key part of the context of abuse
family
230
Some siblings describe their relationships more positively than others. Thus, there is considerable variation in sibling relationships. Research indicates that a high level of sibling conflict is linked to negative developmental outcomes (Fosco & others, 2012).
Variation in sibling relationships.
231
Siblings typically know each other very well, and this intimacy suggests that they can either provide support or tease and undermine each other, depending on the situation
Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship.
232
Intense positive and negative emotions are often expressed by siblings toward each other. Many children and adolescents have mixed feelings toward their siblings.
Emotional quality of the relationship.
233
a leading expert on sibling relationships, recently described three important characteristics of sibling relationships
Judy Dunn
234
often are achievement-oriented and display a desirable personality, especially in comparison with later-borns and children from large families
Only children
235
is a "spoiled brat" with such undesirable characteristics as dependency, lack of self-control, and self- centered behavior.
only child
236
Compared with later-born children, _____ have also been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled
firstborn children
237
one research review concluded that "_____ are the most intelligent, achieving, and conscientious, while _____ are the most rebellious, liberal, and agreeable
firstborns
later-borns
238
. Whether a child has older or younger siblings has been linked to development of certain personality characteristics.
Birth Order
239
described how parents bring their experiences at work into their homes.
Ann Crouter
240
Researchers have found that the nature of parents' work has more influence on children's development than whether a parent works outside the home
Working Parents
241
Children in _____ are more likely than children in nondivorced families to have academic problems, to show externalized problems (such as acting out and delinquency) and internalized problems (such as anxiety and depression), to be less socially responsible, to have less competent intimate relationships, to drop out of school, to become sexually active at an early age, to take drugs, to associate with antisocial peers, to have low self- esteem, and to be less securely attached as young adults
divorced families
242
(such as anxiety and depression)
internalized problems
243
(such as acting out and delinquency)
externalized problems
244
show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in nondivorced families
children from divorced families
245
is a very important social context for children's development. However, children's development also is strongly influenced by what goes on in other social contexts, such as in peer groups and when children are playing or spending time with the media, computers, and other electronic devices
family
246
By about the age of ____, children already prefer to spend time with same-sex rather than opposite-sex playmates, and this preference increases in early childhood. During these same years the frequency of peer interaction, both positive and negative, picks up considerably
3
247
who are rejected by peers or are victimized and feel lonely are at risk for depression (Rubin & others, 2018)
Withdrawn children
248
is to provide a source of information and comparison about the world outside the family.
peers
249
is someone to play with.
friend
250
According to _____, play helps children master anxieties and conflicts (Demanchick, 2015). Because tensions are relieved in play, children can cope more effectively with life's problems.
Freud and Erikson
251
An extensive amount of peer interaction during childhood involves ____.
play
252
is a pleasurable activity in which children engage for its own sake, and its functions and forms vary
Play
253
also considered play to be an excellent setting for cognitive development. He was especially interested in the symbolic and make-believe aspects of play.
Vygotsky (1962)
254
maintained that play advances children's cognitive development. Play permits children to practice their competencies and acquired skills in a relaxed, pleasurable way
Piaget (1962)
255
encourages exploratory behavior by offering children the possibilities of novelty, complexity, uncertainty, surprise, and incongruity
Play
256
described play as exciting and pleasurable in itself because it satisfies our exploratory drive.This drive involves curiosity and a desire for information about something new or unusual.
Daniel Berlyne (1960)
257
types of children's play today
Sensorimotor and Practice Play
Pretense/symbolic play
Social Play
Constructive play
Games
258
involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.
Practice play
259
is behavior by infants that lets them derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes.
Sensorimotor play
260
are activities that children engage in for pleasure and that have rules. Often they involve competition.
Games
261
combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation. It occurs when children engage in the self-regulated creation of a product or a solution.
Constructive play
262
Involves interaction with peers. It increases dramatically during the preschool years.
Social Play
263
play occurs when the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol (Taggart, Eisen, & Lillard, 2018). They learn to transform objects-substituting them for other objects and
acting toward them as if they were those other objects.
Pretense/symbolic
264
continues to have a strong influence on children's development
Television
265
to describe the amount of time individuals spend with television, DVDs, computers, video games, and hand-held electronic devices such as smartphones
screen time
