Early Development Flashcards
(71 cards)
1
Q
Key Developmental Theories and Basic Description (3)
A
- Nativism (nature)
It focuses on core, hard-wired, innate knowledge about objects, actions, numbers, and space.
- Empiricism (nurture)
Views humans as statistical learning machines, processing huge amounts of information from the external environment. By 3 months, we have made over seven million eye movements and viewed human faces for approximately four hundred hours.
- Constructivism
A third theory of development is constructivism, which suggests that humans are biased toward learning through social interactions and predisposed to seeking out information and exploring and understanding the world through hypothesis testing.
2
Q
Three Core Foundational Concepts of Constructivism (3)
A
- Circular (bi-directional) causality
- Interactivity and brain networks
- Self-organising & activity-dependent processes
3
Q
Describe Holistic Person-Context Interaction Theory (4)
A
Development takes place through an individual’s inner interactions between the genetic, brain, cognitive and behavioural components and their outer (person-context) interactions with the physical (niche construction) and social world (parent-child interaction).
Although there are constraints that determine, for example, which range of functions can be supported by a given cortical region, there is increasing evidence from…
- Infant perinatal focal damage
- Changes in development
- Atypical development
… that suggests there is not always a 1:1 mapping between brain structure and function.
4
Q
Piaget’s Four Stages of Development Theory (4)
A
Sensori-Motor Stage
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
5
Q
Define Assimilation and Accommodation
A
Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing knowledge structures or schemas.
Accommodation is the process of modifying and updating existing knowledge structures or schemas based on new information or experiences.
6
Q
Key Features of Piaget’s Theory (7)
A
- Proposes a sequence of four stages of cognitive development.
- Each stage imposes certain limitations on cognition.
- To progress to the next stage, those limitations must be overcome through cognitive restructuring.
- Assimilation and accommodation are the processes proposed to drive developmental change in this model. Note that accommodation occurs only when and if assimilation fails.
- Stagers occur in an invariant sequence (in order), and are hierarchical, deriving from knowledge structures of the previous stage of development.
- At each stage, radical cognitive restructuring (a complete overhaul of thought processes) occurs. This change is qualitative in nature.
- Development is domain-general and demonstrates concurrence, meaning that the same systems and skills can be applied to knowledge acquisition at different developmental stages.
7
Q
Features of Sensori-Motor Stage (4)
A
0-2 years
Understanding the world through physical action upon it.
This understanding is limited by egocentricity.
It ends when they develop an understanding of object permeance.
8
Q
Features of the Preoperational Stage (2)
A
2-6 years
Mentally represents aspects of the world but with limitations.
9
Q
Features of the Concrete Operational Stage (2)
A
7-11 years
Uses ‘operations’ or mental actions to solve problems.
10
Q
Features of the Formal Operational Stage (2)
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age 12+
Can deal with the hypothetical and abstract.
11
Q
Criticism of Piaget’s Four Stages of Development (4)
A
- Infants are capable of much more than the pre-operational stage contends.
- It overestimates children’s abilities during the formal operational stage.
- It neglects significant changes in the adolescent period.
- It doesn’t account for individual differences between children and populations (Piaget studied his own children).
12
Q
Define Object permanence
A
describes the ability to mentally represent an object, even when it is not visible. Understanding that objects exist permanently, independent of our experience, makes this possible.
13
Q
Define Egocentricity
A
is the belief that something exists because of the observer’s actions upon it.
14
Q
Outline The A, not B Task (4)
A
The task demands executive integration of multiple cognitive tasks, including;
- Inhibiting a prepotent response.
- Holding a memory of the new location in mind (requiring attentional capacity).
The task assesses representational capacity (and accompanying attentional resources).
15
Q
Representational capacity
A
is the ability to imagine the object existing in a specific location without directly observing it in that location.
16
Q
Define perceptual expectation
A
a mental representation of an object in a specific location based on direct observation of the object in that location (seeing is believing).
17
Q
Criticisms of the A, not B Task (8)
A
- The task is highly replicable but context-dependent.
- The age of success depends on the number of repetitions and the delay period.
- Depending on specific parameters, infants can pass or fail these tasks at different ages.
- Evidence suggests that the error is more due to an inability to inhibit the prepotent response (incorrect but instinctual responses, as in the Go, No-Go Task).
- Different findings when responses are measured using looking or reaching behaviours.
- Early mental processes like simple perceptual expectation may not support the developmental trajectories we see in the A-not-B task and other representational activities such as drawing, pretend play, and delayed imitation.
- For example, 12-month-old infants do not show the A not-B error unless a delay is imposed between object placement and initiation of the retrieval response. Compared to 18-month-olds, 12-month-old infants perform worse in the invisible displacement task (the object is placed in a container, and the container is hidden).
- Representational capacity does emerge gradually during infancy (in line with the sensorimotor period). However, it may not result from their developing understanding of interactions between the self and the external environment.
18
Q
Define Phonology
A
is the sound system of the language.
19
Q
Semantics
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or lexical items are the meanings of words.
20
Q
Morphology
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refers to the internal structure of words.
21
Q
Two types of morphology with definition (2)
A
- Inflectional: the addition of amorphemeat the end of a word to change what the word means in a sentence or
- Derivational: a type ofword formationthat creates new lexemes by changing syntactic categories or adding substantial new meaning (or both) to a free or bound base.
22
Q
Define Syntax
A
the way that words are combined to make sentences and grammar.
23
Q
List the stages of language development (6)
A
Pre-linguistic
Babbling
Holophrastic
Two-word
Telegraphic
Multi-word
24
Q
Features of the Babbling stage (4)
A
6-12 months
Progression from reduplicated/canonical babbling (repeating the same syllable over and over), to variegated babbling (combine different consonant and vowel combinations) and finally proto-words (‘Made up’ words used to represent a word they cannot pronounce).
The emergence of meaning presents from approximately 9 months.
First words may bear little
relation to the adult equivalent or have a different scope.
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Features of the holophrastic stage (3)
12-18 months
One word can convey a whole phrase of meaning.
Phonology is often simplified for ease of articulation (‘fis’ phenomenon).
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Features of the two-word stage (3)
18-24 months
Explosion of vocabulary and start of grammar.
Usually content words e.g. “dolly gone”.
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Features of the telegraphic stage (3)
2-3 years
Sentences make sense but are not grammatically complete as some
grammatical words still omitted.
From this point, continued development of inflectional morphology, auxiliary verbs and length of utterances.
28
Define Phonemes
perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another. For example, p, b, d, and t are phonemes in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat.
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Phonotactics
the study of the rules governing the possible phoneme sequences in a language. They represent our application of best guesses about word boundaries from our experience.
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Define Acoustic queues
help use phonotactics to infer the meaning of a sentence.
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Define Prosodic stress patterns
describe the prominence one or more syllables receive relative to others in a given word.
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Define Prosodic bootstrapping
also known as phonological bootstrapping) in linguistics refers to the hypothesis that learners of a primary language use prosodic features such as pitch, tempo, rhythm, amplitude, and other auditory aspects from the speech signal as a cue to identify other properties of grammar, such as syntactic structure.
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Define Lexical Development
the study of changes that occur in vocabulary knowledge over childhood.
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Define overextension
An overextension occurs when a child uses a word more broadly than an adult would, e.g., ‘dog’ for all four-legged animals.
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Define under-extension
An under-extension occurs when a child uses a word more narrowly than an adult would, e.g., reserving ‘dog’ only for the family pet.
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Define Fast Mapping
Fast Mapping uses contextual information such as situational context and word order cues to assign meaning to new words based on exclusion. For example, “Can you get me the secateurs?”.
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Morpho-syntactic development
Morpho-syntactic development describes the combination of morphological and syntactic aspects of language, examining how grammatical structures and word forms interact to convey meaning in sentences.
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Over-regularisation
Over-regularisation is a part of the language-learning process in which children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words, such as substituting "goed " for "went" or "tooths" for "teeth”.
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WHAT IS THE MLU: Mean Length of Utterance (2)
This describes a measure of linguistic productivity in which higher MLU = more advanced language.
The number of morphemes is divided by the number of utterances per 100 utterances to give the MLU.
40
Key Feature of the Nativist Theory of Language Learning (6)
- Language learning facilitated by an
innate mechanism called
Language Acquisition Device
(LAD).
- A Universal Grammar gives infants
innate knowledge of grammatical
categories and general
grammatical rules.
- Domain-specific mechanisms.
- The input is not enough.
- Children's language is infinitely
productive.
- The language produced goes beyond
what they hear around them.
41
Key Feature of the Social Constructivist Theory of Language Learning (6)
- Language structure emerges
through language use.
- Children base their language
around specific lexical items, not
grammatical categories.
- Domain-general mechanisms.
- The input is rich enough.
- Children’s language is not as
productive as some think.
- Language produced is closely
linked to language heard recently.
42
What causes stimulus poverty in children? (2)
- Lack of direct correction
- Lack of negative evidence
43
Define Infant Directed Speech (IDS) and give the key features
Human infants are known to take advantage of adaptions, known as infant-directed speech, including prosodic structure, such as pitch and emphasis on word boundaries, to learn language from caregivers.
- Higher pitch
- Exaggerated intonation
- Hyper-articulation of vowels
- Emphasises word and phrase boundaries
- Focus on the here and now
- Cross-cultural
44
Define Variation sets
Variation sets involve echoing back the original utterance but substituting some words for variations without changing their meaning.
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Define Extending
Extending involves echoing back and extending the length and vocabulary of the original utterance.
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Define Reformulating
Reformulating involves echoing back a more complete and accurate version of the utterance.
47
Examples of Socio-Cognitive Skills (5)
- Joint attention
- Gaze following
- Gesture and pointing
- Direct gaze
- Intention reading
48
Define Primary semantic processing
Primary semantic processing refers to the activation of meaningful information which is learned to be referred to by a particular word.
49
Define Parental Input
Information from parents enhances comprehension and understanding.
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Key Features of ASD (6)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
- ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder.
- Affects up to 1% of UK children
- Often diagnosed around age 5, but can be diagnosed as early as 3 years and much later in life.
- There is no known single cause.
- ASD is characterised by social communication difficulties, restrictive and repetitive behaviours and specific sensory anomalies.
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ASD Core Symptoms (2 sets)
**Restricted and Repetitive Behaviours and Sensory Symptoms:**
- Hyposensitivity
- Hypersensitivity
- Lining up objects
- Difficulty with change/insistence on sameness
- Unusual interests
- Stereotyped movements
**Social Communication:**
- Difficulty understanding emotions
- Unusual words
- Poor eye contact
- Unusual prosody
- Difficulty making friends
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Describe ASD Motor Development
- High prevalence of motor problems in ASD cohorts, such as:
- Head lag
- Delayed reaching of motor milestones
- Less-developed gross and fine motor skills
- Oral-motor co-ordination
- Postural control
- Manual control
53
Features of Typical Development (4)
**Characterised by:**
- Engaging others in play
- Meaningful, purposeful and pretend play
- Sharing enjoyment by smiling at people
- Synchronising with others through imitation
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Features of Atypical Development (4)
**Characterised by:**
- Strong interest in phones or technology
- Not engaging with others in play
- No response to their name
- Enjoys being tickled but doesn’t make eye contact to share their joy with others.
55
Define Polygenic disorders
Polygenic disorders are caused by the joint contribution of a number of independently acting or interacting polymorphic genes; the individual contribution of each gene may be small or even unnoticeable.
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Define Monogenic disorders
Monogenic disorders are caused by the inheritance of single gene mutation.
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Commonality of ASD and ADHD
- Can have monogenic causes, but the majority of cases are polygenic (extremes of typical variation).
- **ASD**
- Affects 1% population
- Social understanding
- Overly focused attention style
- Typically diagnosed around 5 years
- **ADHD**
- 5% population
- Attention difficulties and hyperactivity
- Typically diagnosed during school years
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Early ASD Symptoms: 12 to 24 months
**Social**
- Decreased response to name
- Less appropriate eye gaze
- Less sharing of interest or enjoyment
**Communication**
- Limited gestures
- Delayed language milestones
- Unusual prosody
**Repetitive Behaviour**
- With objects or movements, spinning, unusual regard
59
Define Attachment
Behaviour that serves to maintain proximity to a selective caregiver(s) in times of stress. It is theorised to have an evolutionary basis.
60
Key Features of Attachment (4)
Attachment behaviour develops early in infancy and is most clearly evident at 7-9 months,
characterised by proximity seeking and stranger anxiety.
The attachment system is a threat perception and response system,
operating to enable the healthy exploration needed for development whilst managing the threat of disconnection from their primary caregiver on whom they are dependent for survival.
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Outline the phases of attachment development (5)
1. **Phase 1 (0 to 8 weeks):** Indiscriminate social responsiveness.
2. **Phase 2 (2 to 7 months):** Discriminate social responsiveness. The infant preferentially orientates to and signals at one or more discriminated persons.
3. **Phase 3 (8 months to 2-3 years):** Focused attachment. The infant maintains proximity preferentially to a discriminated person by locomotion and signals. The infant becomes wary of strangers.
4. **Phase 4 (2-3 years to school age):** The development of partnership and mutuality. A ‘goal-corrected’ partnership forms. The child uses the mother as a resource and begins to accommodate the mother’s needs.
5. **Phase 5 (school age):** The maintenance of proximity lessens, and the relationship is now based on more abstract considerations such as affection, trust, and approval.
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The four attachment styles and cause of variation in attachment styles (7)
- Secure
- Avoidant
- Resistant
- Disorganized
variations in parenting quality,
of parental sensitivity and
dysregulation, resulting in frightening or harsh behaviours.
63
Outline Aisnworth's Strange Situation
**Method**: a standardised laboratory assessment of attachment behaviour involving seven stages:
1. Free play between the parent and the child.
2. A stranger enters.
3. The parent (primary attachment figure) leaves the room.
4. The parent returns (the first reunion).
5. Free play between parent and child with the stranger observing.
6. the parent leaves the child alone, this time with the stranger.
7. The parent returns (the second reunion).
The method was designed to assess the balance between exploration and attachment needs.
64
Characteristics of Secure Attachment Style (6)
- This is exhibited by approximately 50-60% of normal samples (and 51.6% across all published studies).
- Clear ‘*secure-base behaviour*’ is observed.
- The child misses the caregiver during separation.
- The child seeks the parent upon reunion.
- The child is easily settled by the return of the caregiver, and they soon return to play (exploration).
- Any stylistic differences within the secure group are marked by consistent proximity-seeking and/or open communication with the caregiver and during separation.
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Characteristics of Avoidant (Dismissive) Attachment Style (5)
- It was exhibited in approximately 10 to 25% of British and American samples (and 14.7% across all published studies).
- Striking cross-cultural differences have been observed.
- The child appears unstressed by separation from the primary caregiver.
- However, physiological indicators of stress are still present.
- The child actively shifts their attention away from the caregiver upon reunion.
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Characteristics of Resistant (Anxious, Pre-Occupied) Attachment Style (5)
- Exhibited less frequently in the UK, at around 10 to 15% (and 9.3% across all published studies). It was most commonly observed in Japan and Israel, where rates were between 20% and 30%.
- The child shows signs of distress, even before separation from the primary caregiver.
- The child is very stressed by separation from the caregiver.
- The child exhibits angry or passive behaviour upon reunion with the caregiver.
- For example, arching of the back or resistance to contact followed by strong signals to be picked up (ambivalence), hitting the caregiver, throwing toys or listless whining without accompanying proximity-seeking behaviours.
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Characteristics of Disorganized (Fearful-Avoidant) Attachment Style (6)
- Exhibited in between 10 and 30% of samples (25% across all published studies).
- The child shows sequential or simultaneous contradictory behaviour. For instance, seeking proximity followed by avoidance or freezing out.
- The child shows a general sense of disorientation characterised by undirected, misdirected, incomplete or interrupted movements or expressions.
- The child shows stereotypies, asymmetrical movements, mistimed movements or anomalous postures.
- The child freezes, and shows slowed movement or other indicators of fearfulness.
- This style is associated with maltreatment, poverty and experience of trauma.
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Key Aspects of Parental Sensitivity (4)
1. The caregiver's **awareness** of the infant’s signals.
2. How accurately the caregiver **interprets** the infant's signals.
3. The caregiver's **responsiveness** to the infant signals.
4. **Appropriateness** of responses to the infant signals.
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Define Internal Working Models
We build an internal working model of the social world based on our experiences. This model begins with the care we receive from our primary attachment figure, which forms the basis of how we relate to others and form adult relationships.
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Describe the Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment
Caregiver (including the legacy of their own attachment style →
Relationship with infant →
Infant adopts their own attachment style →
Adult relationships based on this attachment style
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