Earth Science (Chapter 7-16) Flashcards
Earth Science by Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa (285 cards)
1
Q
Together with his associates, he constructed a map that pieced together the edges of the continental shelves of South America and Africa.
A
Edward Bullard
2
Q
The title of the book written by Alfred Wegener to support the Continental Drift Theory.
A
The Origin of Continents and Oceans
3
Q
Divergent and convergent plate boundaries each account for about ________ of all plate boundaries. Transform faults account for the remaining __________.
A
40 percent; 20 percent
4
Q
The majority of, but not all, divergent plate boundaries are associated with
A
mid-oceanic ridges (MOR)
5
Q
the longest topographic feature on Earth’s surface, exceeding 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles) in length.
A
Global ridge system
6
Q
along the crest of some ridge segments is a deep canyonlike structure called
A
rift valley
7
Q
Typical rates of seafloor-spreading average around ______ per year.
A
5 centimeters (2 inches)
8
Q
Where can we found fastest and slowest spreading rates.
A
15cm/yr - East Pacific Rise; 2cm/yr Mid-Atlantic Ridge
9
Q
the tallest peaks in Africa
A
Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya
10
Q
A volcanic arc in Atlantic that forms through the subduction of the Atlantic seafloor beneath the Caribbean plate.
A
Lesser Antilles arc
11
Q
An island arc located off the tip of South America.
A
Sandwich Islands
12
Q
The nature of transform faults was discovered in 1965 by Canadian geologist ______.
A
J. Tuzo Wilson
13
Q
When did the Arabian plate begin to split from Africa forming the Red Sea?
A
20 million years ago
14
Q
the last remnant of a once vast ocean called Tethys Ocean
A
Mediterranean sea
15
Q
a drilling ship capable of working in water thousands of meters deep, was built for Deep Sea Drilling Project from 1968-1983.
A
Glomar Challenger
16
Q
IODP means
A
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP).
17
Q
The two drilling ships that was utilized in IODP.
A
JOIDES Resolution (2003) and Chikyu (2007)
18
Q
The major divisions of the mag netic time scale last roughly 1 million years.
A
chrons
19
Q
This convection is a driving force for the movement of tectonic plates, asthe horizontal movements of mantle under the crust drag the plates with them.
A
Mantle drag
20
Q
He concluded that the earthquake must have involved an “elastic rebound” of previously stored elastic stress.
A
H. F. Reid of Johns Hopkins University
21
Q
Large strike-slip faults that slice through Earth’s lithosphere and accommodate motion between two tectonic plates
A
Transform Fault
22
Q
San Andreas fault separates what plates?
A
North American and Pacific Plate
23
Q
the plate boundary between a subducting slab of oceanic lithosphere and the overlying plate form a fault referred to as
A
megathrust fault
24
Q
The earliest known instrument used to measure earthquakes are made by?
A
Zhang Heng
25
How wide is the maximum area from the epicenter that an earthquake can be felt roughly?
20 to 50 kilometers
26
An earthquake that provided geologists with insights into the role of ground shaking as a destructive force.
1964 Alaskan earthquake, also known as the Great Alaskan earthquake and Good Friday earthquake
27
What type of faulting triggered the 1964 Alaskan earthquake?
megathrust fault It had a moment magnitude of 9.2, making it the second largest earthquake on record.
28
The zone of greatest seismic activity is called?
circum-Pacific belt
29
The circum-Pacific belt encompasses the coastal regions of?
Chile, Central America, Indone sia, Japan, and Alaska, including the Aleutian islands
30
A major concentration of strong seismic activity that runs through the mountainous regions that flank the Mediterranean Sea and extends past the Himalayan Mountains
Alpine–Himalayan belt
31
The last major earthquke event in San Andreas Fault that occurred in Pallet Creek segment in 1857, roughly 150 years ago.
Fort Tejon
32
Lavas that have have surfaces of rough, jagged blocks with dangerously sharp edges and spiny projections.
Aa lava
33
What is the diameter of a caldera?
more than 1km
34
From its base on the floor of the Pacific Ocean to its summit, Mauna Loa is over_________ high, exceeding the elevation of Mount Everest.
9 kilometers (6 miles)
35
Most of the recent activity on Kilauea has occurred along the flanks of the volcano, in a region called
East Rift Zone
36
A cinder and spatter cone that formed when the eruption of Mt. Kilauea became localized at a single vent and a series of 44 short-lived episodes of lava fountaining
Puu Oo
37
A cinder cone located in Mexico, erupted for nine years.
Parícutin
38
Well known for eruptions that eject incandescent blobs of lava that it has been referred to as the “Lighthouse of the Mediterranean.”
Stromboli
39
When was the most recent volcanic activity of Mt. Vesavius?
1944
40
Refers to dense cloud of tiny sulfuric-acid droplets. Like fine ash, they can alsolower the mean temperature of the atmosphere by reflecting solar radiation back to space.
aerosols
41
Other term for craters
collapse pits
42
Term used for intrusions that cut across existing structures
discordant
43
It refers to an intrusion if they inject parallel to features such as sedimentary strata
concordant
44
These are discordant bodies that cut across bedding surfaces or other structures in the country rock
Dikes
45
Refers to nearly horizontal, concordant bodies that form when magma exploits weaknesses between sedimentary beds or other structures
Sills
46
The thickness of dikes and sills ranges from
less than 1 millimeter to more than 1 kilometer
47
While dikes and sills can occur as solitary bodies, dikes tend to form in roughly parallel groups called
dike swarms
48
occurs when igneous rocks cool and develop shrinkage frac tures that produce elongated, pillar-like columns that most often have six sides
Columnar jointing
49
A plutonic body must have a surface exposure of ________ in order to be considered a batholith
greater than 100 square kilometers
50
Smaller plutons are termed as
stock
51
Who gave the name laccoliths?
G. K. Gilbert
52
A mass of igneous rock, typically lens-shaped, that has been intruded between rock strata causing uplift in the shape of a dome.
Laccoliths
53
What is the temperature for geothermal gradient?
25°C per kilometer in the upper crust
54
Occurs where hot, solid mantle rock ascends in zones of convective upwelling, thereby mov ing into regions of lower pressure
Decompression melting
55
Most intraplate volcanism occurs where a mass of hotter-than-normal mantle material called
Mantle Plumes
56
A general term that refers to the changes in the shape or position of a rock body in response to differential stress.
Deformation
57
stress is applied uniformly in all directions
confining pressure
58
stress is applied unequally in different directions
differential stress
59
A change in shape caused by stress.
strain
60
Each layer of a fold is bent around an imaginary axis called a
hinge line
61
These are produced by rapid vertical slips in dip-slips that generate earthquakes.
fault scarps
62
when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block
normal fault
63
produced by alternating uplifted fault blocks
horst
64
down-dropped fault blocks
graben
65
fault blocks that have been tilted
half-grabens
66
the slopes of the large normal faults associated with the Basin and Range Province decrease with depth and eventually join to form a nearly horizontal fault called
Detachment fault
67
strike-slip faults that slice through Earth’s crust and accommodate motion between two tectonic plates
Transform Fault
68
fractures along which no appre ciable displacement has occurred
joints
69
This type of mountain building is characterized by subduction beneath a continent rather than oceanic lithosphere.
Andean-type mountain Building
70
The resulting chaotic accumulation of deformed and thrust-faulted sediments and scraps of ocean crust
Accretionary wedge
71
As an accretionary wedge grows upward, it acts as a barrier to the movement of sediment from the volcanic arc to the trench. As a result, sediments begin to collect between the accretionary wedge and the volcanic arc. This region, which is composed of relatively undeformed layers of sediment and sedimentary rocks
forearc basins
72
a crustal fragment that consists of a distinct and recognizable series of rock formations that has been transported by plate tectonic processes.
terrane
73
eastern portion of the Pacific basin
Farallon plate
74
Much of the remaining penetration into Asia caused lateral displacement of large blocks of the Asian crust by a mechanism described as
continental escape
75
The Laramide Rockies in Rocky Mountains was produced duringa period of deformation known as the
Laramide Orogeny
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involves ductile spreading at depth and normal faulting and subsidence in the upper, brittle portion of Earth’s crust.
gravitational collapse
77
Combining the principles of lateral continuity and superposition lets us extend relative age relationships over broad areas. This pro cess, called
correlation
78
Refers to a piece of rock trapped in another type of rock.
xenolith
79
These are "foreign" minerals incorporated into the magma during magma scent or during xenoliths fragmentation.
xenocrysts
80
When we observe layers of rock that have been deposited essentially without interruption, we call them
conformable
81
Represents a long period during which deposition ceased, erosion removed previously formed rocks, and then deposi tion resumed
unconformity
82
Where can we find fossils of mammoth?
Arctic tundra of Siberia and Alaska
83
Where can we find fossils of sloths?
dry cave in Nevada
84
When mineral-rich groundwater permeates porous tissue such as bone or wood, minerals precipitate out of solution and fill pores and empty spaces, a process called
permineralization
85
When a shell or another structure is buried in sediment and then dissolved by underground water, a ______ is created
mold
86
If these hollow spaces are subsequently filled with mineral matter, ______ are created
casts
87
Animal footprints made in soft sediment that later turned into sedimentary rock.
Tracks
88
Tubes in sediment, wood, or rock made by an animal. These holes may later become filled with mineral matter and preserved.
Burrows
89
Some of the oldest-known fossils are believed to be
worm burrows
90
Fossil dung and stomach contents that can provide useful information pertaining to the size and food habits of organisms
Coprolites
91
Highly polished stomach stones that were used in the grinding of food by some extinct reptiles
Gastroliths
92
To develop a geologic time scale that is applicable to the entire Earth, rocks of similar age in different regions must be matched up. Such a task is referred to as
correlation
93
a fossil that is useful for dating and correlating the strata in which it is found
index fossil
94
Fossils that provide geological records of the activities and behaviors of past life. Some examples include rock evidence of nests, burrows, footprints, and scat.
trace fossils
95
other term for trace fossils
Ichnofossils
96
Refers to the fossils of bones, teeth, and shells.
body fossils
97
the property of some unstable atoms (radionuclides) to spontaneously emit nuclear radiation
radioactivity
98
It refers to the earliest interval (eon) of Earth history—before the oldest-known rocks.
Hadean
99
When the term "Hadean" was coined in 1972, the age of Earth’s oldest rocks was thought to be about
3.8 billion years
100
A well-known fossil of a human ancestor _________ was discovered in Ethiopia and is 3.2 million years old. The oldest bones thus far assigned to the human genus Homo, are from the early Pleistocene epoch and are about 2.4 million years old.
(Australopithecus afarensis) known as Lucy
101
This early atmosphere was enhanced by a process called __________, through which gases trapped in the planet’s interior are released
outgassing
102
alternating layers of iron-rich rocks and chert
banded iron formations
103
what era did the Great Oxygenation Event occur
Paleoproterozoic era of the Precambrian period
104
One apparent spike in oxy gen levels occurred during the _________, when oxygen made up about 35 percent of the atmosphere, compared to modern levels of only 21 percent.
Pennsylvanian period (300million years ago)
105
Another positive benefit of the Great Oxygenation Event is
oxygen molecules (O2) readily absorb ultraviolet radi ation and form ozone (O3)
106
The oldest-known sample of Earth is a 4.4-billion year-old zircon crystal can be found in
a metaconglomerate in the Jack Hills area of western Australia.
107
The large landmass in the Southern Hemisphere called Gondwana, comprised mainly of present day
South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica
108
The cold current, called ______, effectively isolated the entire Antarctic coast from the warm, poleward-directed currents in the southern oceans. As a result, most of the Antarctic landmass became covered with glacial ice.
West Wind Drift
109
In what period did the Gondwana and Laurasia collided forming Pangaea
Permian - Triassic
110
Considered as the world’s richest storehouse of dinosaur fossils. In what period did it formed?
Morrison Formation - Jurassic
111
The first known organisms were simple single-cell bacteria
prokaryotes
112
stony structures built by colonies of microscopic photosynthesising organisms called cyanobacteria
Stromatolite
113
This period was the golden age of trilobites
Cambrian
114
Trilobites developed a flexible exoskel eton of a protein called
chitin
115
These are mobile, highly developed mollusks that became the major predators of their time. Descendants of these include the squid, octopus, and chambered nautilus that inhabit our modern oceans.
cephalopods
116
This period marked the appearance of abundant cephalopods
Ordovician
117
By the late Devonian, this type of fish had evolved into air-breathing amphibians with strong legs yet retained a fishlike head and tail.
lobe-finned fish
118
They were the first true terrestrial animals with improved lungs for active lifestyles and “waterproof” skin that helped prevent the loss of body fluids.
Reptiles
119
produced “naked” seeds that are exposed on modified leaves that usually form cones
gymnosperms
120
Gymnosperms that resembled large pineapple plants
cycads
121
Gymnosperms that had fan-shaped leaves
ginkgo
122
the largest gymnosperm plants whose modern descendants include the pines, firs, and junipers
conifers
123
The largest herbivorous dinosaurs.
Apatosaurus
124
Largest carnivorous dinosaurs.
Tyrannosaurus
125
These are airborne dinosaurs the “dragons of the sky” that possessed huge membra nous wings that allowed them rudimentary flight.
pterosaurs
126
These ancestors of modern birds had feathered wings but retained reptilian characteristics, such as sharp teeth, clawed digits in the wings, and a long tail with many vertebrae.
Archaeopteryx
127
Referred to as fish-eating dinosaurs. These reptiles became proficient swimmers but retained their reptilian teeth and breathed by means of lungs rather than gills.
plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs
128
These mammals are born very young and then move to a pouch on the mother.
marsupial mammals
129
These mammals spend a longer time in utero and are born in a relatively mature state compared to marsupials.
placental mammals
130
Anthropoids are also informally called?
apes
131
The genus ________ , which came into existence about 4.2 million years ago, showed skeletal characteristics that were intermediate between our apelike ancestors and modern humans.
Australopithecus
132
The earliest fossils of our genus Homo include_______ , nicknamed “handy man” because their remains were often found with sharp stone tools in sedimentary deposits from 2.4 to 1.5 million years ago
Homo habilis
133
During the next 1.3 million years of evolution, our ances tors developed substantially larger brains and long slender legs with hip joints adapted for long-distance walking.
Homo erectus
134
The oldest-known fossils of Homo sapiens outside Africa were found in the Middle East and date back to
115,000 years ago
135
Mastodons and mammoths can be found in?
North America
136
The oldest anatomically modern human fossils are _________ old.
200,000 years
137
Humans evolved from primate ancestors in ______ over a period of 8 million years.
Africa
138
called as the land hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
139
Referred as the water hemisphere.
Southern Hemisphere
140
largest ocean and the largest single geographic feature on the planet
Pacific Ocean
141
Depth of Pacific Ocean
average depth of 3940 meters (12,927 feet, or about 2.5 miles)
142
about half the size of the Pacific Ocean and not quite as deep. It is a relatively narrow ocean compared to the Pacific and is bounded by almost parallel continental margins.
Atlantic Ocean
143
slightly smaller than the Atlantic Ocean but has about the same average depth. Unlike the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it is largely a Southern Hemisphere water body.
Indian Ocean
144
about 7 percent the size of the Pacific Ocean and is only a little more than one quarter as deep as the rest of the oceans.
Arctic Ocean
145
The meeting of currents near Antarctica is called the _______.
Antarctic Convergence
146
Oceanographers also recognize an additional ocean near the continent of Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere. Defined by the meeting of currents near Antarctica called the Antarctic Convergence, it is actually those portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans south of about 50° south latitude.
Southern Ocean or Antarctic Ocean
147
The measurement of ocean depths and the charting of the shape (topography) of the ocean floor is known as
bathymetry
148
The basic approach used in measuring water depths as in sound energy is
sonar (sound navigation and ranging)
149
The first devices that used sound to measure water depth, called
echo sounders
150
the speed of sound waves in water
about 1500 meters (4900 feet) per second
151
Deep, steep-sided valleys known as ________ are cut into the continental slope and may extend across the entire continental rise to the deep-ocean basin
submarine canyons
152
Refers to the downslope movements of dense, sediment-laden water.
Turbidity Currents
153
deposits of turbidity currents and commonly show graded bedding with a sequence of sedimentary structures indicative of waning flow during the passage of the turbidity current
turbidites
154
chaotic accumulation of deformed sediment and scraps of oceanic crust
Accretionary wedge
155
The opposite process of accretionary wedge. Rather than sediment accumulating along the front of the overriding plate, sediment and rock are scraped off the bottom of the overriding plate and transported into the mantle by the subducting plate. It is particularly effective when the angle of descent is steep.
Subduction erosion
156
are deep, incredibly flat features; in fact, these regions are likely the most level places on Earth.
Abyssal Plains
157
Submarine volcanoes
seamounts
158
These are eroded seamounts
guyots
159
The term guyot comes from the name of ________, Princeton University’s first geology professor.
Arnold Guyot
160
Seafloor sediment that consists primarily of mineral grains that were weathered from continental rocks and transported to the ocean.
Terrigenous Sediment
161
Consists of shells and skeletons of marine animals and algae. This debris is produced mostly by microscopic organisms living in the sunlit waters near the ocean surface.
Biogenous Sediment
162
The most common biogenous sediment and has the consistency of thick mud.
calcareous (CaCO3) ooze
163
composed primarily of tests of diatoms (single-celled algae) and radiolaria (single-celled animals)
siliceous (SiO2) ooze
164
Seafloor sediments that consists of minerals that crystallize directly from seawater through various chemical reactions.
Hydrogenous Sediment
165
are rounded, hard lumps of manganese, iron, and other metals that precipitate in concentric layers around a central object
Manganese nodules
166
form by precipitating directly from seawater in warm climates.
Calcium Carbonate
167
These are usually precipitated as coatings on rocks near black smokers associated with the crest of a mid-ocean ridge. These deposits contain iron, nickel, copper, zinc, silver, and other metals in varying proportions.
Metal Sulfides
168
form where evaporation rates are high and there is restricted open-ocean circulation.
Evaporites
169
are natural gas reservoirs in ice like crystalline solids found in sediments on the deep-ocean floor and in Arctic permafrost areas deeper than 200 meters (660 feet).
Gas Hydrates
170
Gas hydrates contain ______ which is the main ingredient of most natural gas—which is trapped within a lattice-like cage of water molecules.
methane molecules
171
Refers to the total amount of solid material dissolved in water. More specifically, it is the ratio of the mass of dissolved substances to the mass of the water sample.
salinity
172
the average salinity of seawater
3.50%
173
The layer of ocean water between about 300 meters (980 feet) and 1000 meters (3300 feet), where there is a rapid change of temperature with depth, is called the?
thermocline
174
experience a more dramatic seasonal thermocline and exhibit characteristics intermediate between high- and low-lati tude regions.
Midlatitude waters
175
The layer of ocean water between about 300 meters (980 feet) and 1000 meters (3300 feet), where there is a rapid change of density with depth, is called the?
pycnocline
176
A pycnocline is not present in high latitudes; instead, the water column is
isopycnal (iso = same, pycno = density)
177
organisms—algae, animals, and bacteria—that drift with ocean currents
plankton
178
photosynthetic planktons
phytoplankton
179
animal planktons
zooplankton
180
All animals capable of mov ing independently of ocean currents, by swimming or other means of propulsion, are called
nekton
181
most of Earth’s biomass—the mass of all living organisms—consists of ______ adrift in the oceans.
plankton
182
describes organisms living on or in the ocean bottom
benthos
183
An area in the deep-ocean floor that exhibit abundant life-forms
hydrothermal vents
184
The upper part of the ocean into which sunlight penetrates
Photic zone
185
A portion of the photic zone near the surface where light is strong enough for photosynthesis to occur.
Euphotic zone
186
Deeper part of the ocean where there is no sunlight.
Aphotic zone
187
Refers to the conversion of carbon atoms into organic compounds without sunlight for energy.
chemosynthesis
188
The area where the land and ocean meet and overlap is called the _________. This narrow strip of land between high and low tides is alter nately covered and uncovered by seawater with each tidal change.
intertidal zone
189
Seaward from the low-tide line is the_________. This covers the gently sloping continental shelf out to the shelf break.
neritic zone
190
Beyond the continental shelf is the?
oceanic zone
191
Open ocean of any depth is called the ________. Animals in this zone swim or float freely.
pelagic zone
192
The photic part of the pelagic zone is home to?
phytoplankton, zooplankton, and nekton
193
This part of the pelagic zone has strange species like viperfish and giant squid that are adapted to life in deep water.
aphotic part
194
Includes any sea-bottom surface, regardless of its distance from shore, and is mostly inhabited by benthos organisms.
benthic zone
195
A subdivision of the benthic zone and includes the deep-ocean floor, such as abyssal plains. This zone is characterized by extremely high water pressure, consistently low temperature, no sunlight, and sparse life.
abyssal zone
196
The amount of carbon fixed by organisms through the synthesis of organic matter using energy derived from solar radiation (photosynthesis) or chemical reactions (chemosynthesis).
Primary Productivity
197
The principal elements that contribute to the ocean’s salinity are?
chlorine (55%) and sodium (31%)
198
Huge, circular-moving current systems dominate the sur faces of the oceans. These large whirls of water within an ocean basin are called
gyres
199
The center of each gyre coincides with the subtropics at about 30° north or south latitude, so they are often called
subtropical gyres
200
In the North Atlantic, this zone of calmer waters is known as the
Sargasso Sea
201
The only current that completely encircles Earth is the
West Wind Drift
202
the temperature at which water vapor condenses
dew point
203
The rising of cold water from deeper layers to replace warmer surface water, is a common wind-induced vertical movement.
upwelling
204
It occurs when winds blow toward the equator and parallel to the coast
Coastal upwelling
205
An accumulation of sediment found along the landward margin of an ocean or a lake.
Beach
206
Beaches consist of one or more ______, which are relatively flat platforms often composed of sand that are adjacent to coastal dunes or cliffs and marked by a change in slope at the seaward edge.
berms
207
Part of the beach is the beach face, which is the wet sloping surface that extends from the berm to the shoreline.
beach face
208
The time it takes one full wave— one wavelength—to pass a fixed position
wave period
209
a critical point that is reached where waves grow so tall that they topple over, forming ocean breakers
whitecaps
210
As the wave travels, the water passes the energy along by moving in a circle.
circular orbital motion
211
The turbulent water created by breaking waves
surf
212
Refers to the bending of waves that affects the distribution of energy along the shore and thus strongly influences where and to what degree erosion, sediment transport, and deposition will take place.
wave refraction
213
Occurs as incoming waves carry sand at an angle up the beach, while the water from spent waves carries it directly down the slope of the beach.
beach drift
214
Concentrated movements of water that flow in the opposite direction of break ing waves
Rip currents
215
originate in the cutting action of the surf against the base of coastal land. As erosion progresses, rocks overhanging the notch at the base of the cliff crumble into the surf, and the cliff retreats.
wave-cut cliffs
216
A relatively flat, benchlike surface that is left behind by the receding cliff.
wave-cut platform
217
If a wave-cut platform is uplifted above sea level by tectonic forces, it becomes a
marine terrace
218
a sandbar that completely crosses a bay, sealing it off from the open ocean
baymouth bar
219
They develop either because an area experiences uplift or as a result of a drop in sea level.
Emergent coasts
220
They are created when sea level rises or the land adjacent to the sea subsides.
Submergent coasts
221
What type of coast exhibits rising land or falling water levels expose wave-cut cliffs and marine terraces above sea level.
Emergent coasts
222
They are often highly irregular because the sea typically floods the lower reaches of river valleys flowing into the ocean. The ridges separating the valleys, however, remain above sea level and project into the sea as headlands. These drowned river mouths, which are called estuaries, characterize many coasts today.
Submergent coasts
223
A tidal pattern that is characterized by a single high tide and a single low tide each tidal day.
diurnal tidal pattern
224
Exhibits two high tides and two low tides each tidal day, with the two highs about the same height and the two lows about the same height. This type of tidal pattern is common along the Atlantic coast of the United States.
semidiurnal tidal pattern
225
Similar to a semidiurnal pattern except that it is characterized by a large inequality in high water heights, low water heights, or both. In this case, there are usually two high and two low tides each day, with high tides of differ ent heights and low tides of different heights.
mixed tidal pattern
226
Refers to the the term used to describe the horizontal flow of water accompanying the rise and fall of the tides.
Tidal current
227
Tidal currents that advance into the coastal zone as the tide rises
flood currents
228
As the tide falls, seaward-moving water generates
ebb currents
229
Periods of little or no current, called _______, separate flood and ebb
slack water
230
The areas affected by these alternat ing tidal currents are called
tidal flats
231
Delta made by tidal currents in landward of an inlet
flood deltas
232
Delta made by tidal currents in the sea ward side of an inlet.
ebb deltas
233
Composition of Air:
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1 % other gases (Argon-0.9% and CO2-0.04%) and water vapour.
234
Refers to the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place.
weather
235
Describes the sum of all statistical weather information that helps describe a place or region.
climate
236
A mixture of many discrete gases, each with its own physical properties, in which varying quantities of tiny solid and liquid particles are suspended.
air
237
means "hidden heat"
latent heat
238
A collective term for tiny solid and liquid particles in the atmosphere such as sea salts from breaking waves, fine soil blown into the air, smoke and soot from fires, pollen and microorganisms lifted by the wind, ash and dust from volcanic eruptions.
aerosols
239
From a meteorological standpoint, what are the three significance of aerosols?
First, many act as surfaces on which water vapor can condense, an important function in the formation of clouds and fog. Second, aerosols can absorb, reflect, and scatter incoming solar radiation. Thus, when an airpollution episode is occurring or when ash fills the sky following a volcanic eruption, the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface can be measurably reduced. Finally, aerosols contribute to an optical phenomenon we have all observed—the varied hues of red and orange at sunrise and sunset.
240
One-half of the atmosphere lies below an altitude of
5.6 km
241
90 percent of the atmosphere has been traversed at
16 kilometers
242
the average pressure at sea level
1000 millibars (mb)
243
It is in this atmospheric layer that essentially all important weather phenomena occur.
troposphere
244
The temperature decrease in the troposphere is called
environmental lapse rate
245
The average value of environmental lapse rate (temperature drop rate) in the troposphere.
6.5°C per kilometer
246
Refers to an instrument package that is attached to a balloon and transmits data by radio as it ascends through the atmosphere.
radiosonde
247
The outer boundary of the troposphere
tropopause
248
Atmospheric layer where the ozone layer can be found.
Stratosphere
249
The coldest temperatures anywhere in the atmosphere occur at the?
mesopause
250
When the Sun is directly over head, the rays strike the atmosphere at a 90-degree angle and travel the shortest possible route to the surface. This dis tance is referred to as
1 atmosphere
251
On June 21 or 22, Earth is in a position such that the north end of its axis is tilted 23½° toward the Sun. At this time, the vertical rays of the Sun strike 23½° north latitude (23½° north of the equator), a latitude known as the ________.
Tropic of Cancer
252
For people in the Northern Hemisphere, June 21 or 22 is known as the __________, the first “official” day of summer.
summer solstice
253
Six months later, on about December 21 or 22, Earth is in the opposite position, with the Sun’s vertical rays striking at 23½° south latitude. This parallel is known as the?
Tropic of Capricorn
254
For those in the Northern Hemisphere, December 21 and 22 is the
winter solstice
255
On these dates, the vertical rays of the Sun strike the equator (0° latitude) because Earth is in such a position in its orbit that the axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the Sun
equinox
256
the date of the autumnal (fall) equinox
September 22 or 23
257
the date of the spring equinox
March 21 or 22
258
The length of daylight is greater than the length of night.
summer solstice
259
the nights are longer than the days
winter solstice
260
During this season, the length of daylight is 12 hours everywhere on Earth, because the circle of illumination passes directly through the poles, dividing the latitudes in half.
equinox (meaning “equal night”)
261
refers to the quantity of energy present
heat
262
refers to the intensity—that is, the degree of “hotness.”
temperature
263
the transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity
conduction
264
the transfer of heat by mass movement or circu lation within a substance.
convection
265
heat transfer mechanism by which solar energy reaches our planet.
radiation
266
Have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio waves (1-10 km)
267
Have the shortest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.
less than one-billionth of a centimeter long
268
has the shortest wavelength in the visible light
violet (0.4 µm)
269
has the longest wavelength in the visible light
red (0.7 µm)
270
The surface temperature of Sun.
nearly 6000°C
271
The surface temperature of Earth.
average surface temperature of about 15°C
272
The Sun radiates maximum energy at ________, which is in the visible range.
0.5 micrometer
273
The maximum radiation for Earth occurs at a wavelength of ________, well within the infrared (heat) range.
10 micrometers
274
The process whereby light bounces back from an object at the same angle at which it encounters a surface and with the same intensity.
Reflection
275
produces a larger number of weaker rays that travel in different directions.
scattering
276
The fraction of the total radiation that is reflected by a sur face is called
albedo
277
Although incoming solar radiation travels in a straight line, small dust particles and gas molecules in the atmosphere scatter some of this energy in all directions. The result, called _________, explains how light reaches into the area beneath a shade tree and how a room is lit in the absence of direct sunlight.
diffused light
278
poor absorber of all types of incoming solar radiation.
Nitrogen
279
efficient absorbers of ultraviolet radiation
Oxygen and ozone
280
Refers to a line that connects points on a map that have the same temperature.
Isotherm
281
Describes the amount of temperature change per unit of distance.
temperature gradient
282
Refers to any factor that causes temperature to vary from place to place and from time to time.
temperature control
283
known as the water hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
284
A coastal location where prevailing winds blow from the ocean onto the shore.
wind ward coast
285
coastal location where the prevailing winds blow from the land toward the ocean
leeward coast
