Ecologism Flashcards
(114 cards)
1
Q
Environmentalism
A
A concern about the natural environment
a desire to reduce environmental degradation
a policy orientation rather than ideological stance
2
Q
deep ecology
A
a green ideological perspective that rejects anthropocentrism and gives priority to the maintenance of nature
associated with values such as bio centric and equality diversity and decentralisation
3
Q
shallow ecology
A
a green ideological perspective that harnesses the lessons of ecology to human needs and ends as they are of overriding moral and political importance
such views imply, albeit in different ways, that the non-human world is only of value insofar as it satisfies human ends.
is associated with values such as sustainability and conservation eg population control; limiting non renewable resources and reducing pollution
humanist ecology
4
Q
anthropocentrism
A
Anthropocentrism is the belief that human needs and interests are of overriding moral and philosophical importance.
All conventional political ideologies are based on anthropocentrism, as reflected in an emphasis on human rights, humanity, social order, the interests of a nation/race, and so on.
Such views imply, albeit in different ways, that the non-human world is only of value insofar as it satisfies human ends.
Some ecological thinking is nevertheless based on anthropocentric assumptions, as in the case of so-called ‘shallow’ ecology.
5
Q
ecocentrism
A
an approach to understanding that prioritises the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of human ends
In this view, humans are merely part of nature, contributing to its wellbeing, and have no greater, or separate value.
Ecocentrism implies a belief in value-in-nature, which can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of nature, viewed as ethical community.
Ecocentrism is most clearly embraced by so-called ‘deep’ ecologist, although eco-feminists also favour ecocentrism.
6
Q
ecology
A
branch of biology
focus s on the ways plante and animals are sustained by self regulating natural systems
composed of living and non living elements
interconnectedness and equilibrium
ecosystems tend towards a state of harmony through a system of self regulation
7
Q
key points of deep ecology
A
humans must develop a new CONSIOUSNESS that sees humankind as an intrinsic part of the natural world
earth is a single complete organism
humans are part of that whole
8
Q
key features of shallow ecology?
A
humans should care for the environment for its own sake
different aspects of the natural world are interconnected so our treatment of nature should take this into account
existing political and economic structures must be transformed so that they place environmental issues at the centre of their concerns
9
Q
what do shallow deep and liberal environmentalists think about interconnectedness?
A
shallow - different aspects of the natural world are interconnected so our treatment of nature should take this into account
deep - earth is a single complete organism
humans are part of that whole
liberal environmentalism - environmental issues can be treated separately
10
Q
what is the fundamental feature of eco feminism?
A
environmental science has been patriarchal in nature
the link between patriarchy and environmental degradation is that men have a natural disposition to see themselves superior in nature
women are free of this patriarchal consciousness seeing them self as part of nature not above it
11
Q
entropy
A
a tendency towards decay or disintegration exhibited by all closed systems
12
Q
industrialism
A
an economic system characterised by relentless growth and the accumulation of capital
13
Q
what do deep ecologists advocate as a solution to industrialism
A
zero growth
if the origins of ecological crisis are in materialism, consumerism and the fixation with growth
this is the solution
zero growth and the construction of a post industrial age
people rely on craft skills living in small rural communities
literally a return to nature
14
Q
space ship earth theory
A
the belief that the earths resources are finite, limited and exhaustible
just as a spaceship will inevitably run out of supplies so too will the earth
the spaceship is a closed system - and so has a tendency towards entropy as it is not sustained by external inputs
kenneth boulding
15
Q
holism
A
associated with the views of capra
“the turning point” 1982
the belief that the natural world is a single organic whole
influenced by eastern mysticism and buddhism
16
Q
gaia
A
the earth is seen as a single living organic whole
even inanimate objects are included in the whole
it self regulated global temperature atmospheric content ocean salinity and mainly its habitability
1960s james lovelock
17
Q
biodiversity
A
refers to the belief that the fullest possible range of the earths plants and animal species should be preserved
18
Q
biocentric ecology
A
this principle implies that all organisms and entities in the biosphere are of equal moral worth
leopoldo “sand country almanac” is the best expression of this
19
Q
weak sustainability
A
associated with shallow ecology
reconciled ecology with economic growth (at a slower pace)
this is done through changes to the tax system; penalising and discouraging pollution or to reduce the use of finite resources
20
Q
strong sustainability
A
social or deep ecology
greater stress on preserving natural capital and is more critical of economic growth
the fixation with materialism consumerism and economic growth means the only solution is ZERO GROWTH in a POST INDUSTRIAL AGE
people live in small rural communities relying on craft skills rejection of industry and technology - return to nature
21
Q
how have some ecologists supported capitalism?
A
Some ecologists have supported capitalism, even advancing the ideas of so-called ‘green capitalism’.
The idea that capitalism is naturally ecological or green, stem from the belief that capitalist enterprises are highly responsive to consumer pressures.
In this view, as consumers become increasingly ecologically aware, recognising that climate change, pollution and so on negatively impact on the quality of their lives, producers will respond by producing new good and favouring green technologies.
Ultimately capitalists will recognise that long-term corporate profitability can only be ensured in the context of sustainable development.
22
Q
what does the tragedy of the commons explain
A
it is a model explaining why over exploitation of environmental resources has occurred
this is explained in terms of the behaviours of individuals in a community, the actions of groups in a society etc
23
Q
explain the “tragedy of the commons”
A
there is environmental vulnerability as people have open access to collective resources
common land or common fish stocks encourage individuals to act in rational self interested ways
so exploiting the resources available to satisfy their needs (including their family and community)
the impact of this may be devastating as resources are depleted and despoiled - rational individuals are self defeated in irrational ends
24
Q
how can entropy be slowed down
A
if governments and private citizens respect ecological principles
ecologists argue the human species will only survive and prosper if it recognises that it is merely one element of a complex biosphere
so sustainability should be adhered to
25
what is buddhist economics
Schumacher: small is beautiful
individuals are NOT utility maximisers
disagreed with the convention obsession with wealth creation
argued production facilities foster personal growth by developing skills and talents
help to over come egocenteredness by forging social bonds as people work together
26
explain the environmentally ethical issue of a moral obligation to future generations
the question of our moral obligation to future generations
forced ecologists to extend the notion of human interests to encompass the human species as a whole; making no distinction between past and future generations
“futurity”
27
why do shallow ecologists advocate concern for futurity
care for and obligations towards future generations can be seen as a natural duty; cross generational justice is an extension of a moral concern for our children and their children and so on
thus is linked to the ideas of ecological stewardship - the idea that no generation ‘owns’ nature; rather each generations merely protects and conserves nature for the benefit of generations to come.
This argument is sometimes linked to conservative thinking about the nature of tradition and the idea that society is a partnership between the living and the dead.
Liberals have sometimes used the principle of individualism to acknowledge the rights of individuals yet to be born.
28
why has ecological stewardship been criticised
conventional moral thinkers argue all rights depend on reciprocity
absurd to endow people who have yet to be born with rights that impose duties on people currently alive since the unborn have no duties to the living
it is also practically incalculable
potentially unlimited size of future generations
the present generation may make sacrifices for bthe benefit of future generations who may be better of than themselves
OR the current sacrifices are insufficient to meet future needs
29
explain the environmental ethical approach to animals and organisms
Animal rights - ecocentrism
Peter Singer
he argued that an altruistic concern for the well being of other species derived from the fact that they are capable of suffering (are sentient)
animals like humans have an interest in avoiding physical pain (utilitarianism)
thus he has condemned SPECIESISM
argument does not apply to non sentient life eg trees rocks rivers
and argument has special consideration with more developed and self aware animals eg apes
REDUCED moral consideration for human foetuses and mentally impaired people who have no capacity for suffering
30
what is modernist or reformist equality
form of green politics practised by environmental pressure groups and a range of political parties
advancers ecological principles
promotes environmentally sound practices
WITHOUT rejecting capitalism modernity (individual self seeking, materialism, economic growth)
shallow or humanist ecology
31
what is the key feature of modernist ecology
recognition that there are environmental limits to growth
pollution
co2 emissions increase
the exhaustion of non renewable energy sources
threaten prosperity and economic performance
so support sustainable development (weak sustainability); environmentally sustainable capitalism
getting rich more slowly
32
how have deep/radical ecologists revised conventional ethical thought
Ecocentric ethical thinking - new metaphysics (way of thinking about the world)
More radically, ‘deep’ ecologists argue that nature has value in its own right; that is, intrinsic value not just an instrumental value deriving from its benefits to human beings
Nature is an ethical community; in which humans are nothing more than "plain citizens" with no more rights than any other member of the community.
This idea of value-in-nature can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a "thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community", viewed as ethical community.
DE call for the adoption of an "ecological consciousness" which allows for no distinction between the self and the other, collapsing the distinction between humankind and nature
33
Biocentric equality
The principle that all organisms and entities in the biosphere are of equal moral worth, each being an expression of nature
Arne Naess all things have an "equal right to live and bloom"
reflects the benefits of biodiversity
34
how do humanist or shallow ecologists criticise deep ecology
they argue it is morally and philosophically flawed
this stems from the deep ecologists view on environmental ethics; idea of the "intrinsic" value of nature
humanists argue environmental ethics can't be non anthropocentric because morality is a human construct
"good" and "bad" is only meaningful when applied to human beings with the capacity for suffering and self reflection
35
how do social ecologists criticised deep ecologist
Murray Bookchin
it fails to recognise the impact on the relationship between humankind and nature of social and economic systems e.g. capitalism or patriarchy; dismissing them as expressions of the Cartesian Newtonian paradigm
concerned with an inner revolution, which Bookchina argues can't be achieved without radical social change
By rejecting rationalism and embracing mysticism, trying to re-echant nature
it succumbs to the "vulgar Californian spiritualism" or ECO-LA-LA
36
Bahro
presented capitalism as the root cause of the environmental crisis
socialism is the solution
links social justice to environmental sustainability
moved beyond conventional ecological crisis had become so pressing that it must take precedence over the class struggle
37
examples of sustainable development in practice
1987 Brundtland Report
Micheal Reynolds - earthships
38
who first distinguished between shallow and deep ecology and why
Arne Naess in 1972
shallow concerns failed to appreciate that ecologist was a philosophy that should exist for its own sake; still placing a higher level on humans than the rest of the world
deep ecology considers the natural world as a system within which humankind has equal status with other species; environmental protection is worth doing for the sake of it, not for human benefit
39
what are two key points of Naess' 8 point platform
1 the wellbeing and flourishing of human and non human life on earth have value in themselves. these values are independent of the usefulness of the non human world for human purposes
4 the flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a sustainably small human population
40
sustainability in practice
Kyoto 1997 - targets on industrialised countries related to greenhouse gases
Rio 2012 - aim to build a green economy and improve international coordination
Paris Agreement 2015 - increase the ability to adapt to climate change, efforts to limit climate change increase in temp.
41
what methods have shallow ecologists used as a means of reducing environmental degradation
fishing bans and quotas imposed by Eu
management of fishing stocks
Obama administration: promoting renewable power sources e.g. solar energy and and
42
what methods have deep ecologists used as a means of reducing environmental degradation
paradigm shift in consciousness
changed attitudes to material wealth and economic growth (zero growth)
reduction in the worlds population (arne ness)
this reduced population would be more self sufficient, with very limited international trade and movement of people
ecofeminist mary daly argued this should be specifically men
43
how do ecofeminists argue women are linked to nature
both nature and women are treated in an inferior manner by society, by men
both women and the natural world are viewed as the other, manipulated, controlled and oppressed
women have a physiological connection with nature via birth and childcare; menstrual cycles are linked to the lunar cycle
44
what society do ecofeminists desire
pre industrial world should be promoted and celebrated as industrialisation and capitalism are male dominated processes
women only areas should be established so women can align themselves more fundamentally with their feminine nature, in spaces free from patriarchal influence
BUT some think men can develop environmental focus, it is just more challenging
Mary Daly urged women to access the wild woman within them to liberate themselves from the social restrictions of female behaviour
45
explain why and how deep ecologists advocate population control
call for a substantial decrease in the human population
as it is the only way of ensuring the flourishing of non human life
deep ecologists have thus rejected aid to the developing world, called for a reduction in LIC birth rates, and argued immigration to LIC should be stopped
46
explain why and how deep ecologists advocate simple living
they believe humans have no right to reduce the richness and diversity of nature, except to satisfy vital needs (Naess)
"walking lighter on the earth"
emphasis on quality of life: being
not quality of possessions: having
self-actualisation occurs as egoism and materialism are transcended
people become "inwardly rich but outwardly poor"
47
explain why and how deep ecologists advocate bioregionalism
nature and human society should be reconfigured in line with naturally defined regions - ecosystems
live according to climate, landscape and natural rhythms of zone of earth you inhabit.
Harmony with natural world, don’t impose will to try to change it in any way.
E.g. Deserts sould be nomadic e.g. Las Vegas and Dubai impermissible.
at odds with established territorial divisions
48
explain why and how deep ecologists have advocated wilderness preservation
seek to preserve nature "wild and free" based on the belief that nature, unspoilt by human intervention, is a repository of wisdom and morality
preservationism: restricting the human impact on the environment; even if its in the best interest of humanity to develop the area
Thoreau's spiritual truth and self-reliance quest led him to flee civilised life and live in solitude, close to nature
49
why do deep ecologists criticise anthropocentrism
Capra traced the origins of the mechanistic, reductionistic world view to Newton and Descartes, before which the world had been understood in organic terms
this happened in the Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm
this is dualistic, understanding the world in terms of positions e.g. self/other, individual/society, nature/human
instead of oneness and interconnectedness
this thinking makes it easy to think of nature as inert and valueless in itself, making it merely a resource that is available to satisfy human ends
50
quote on biocentric equality (environmental ethics)
Aldo Leopolds Sand County Almanac
land ethic: a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. it is wrong otherwise
51
why is it argued ecology and anthropocentrism are irreconcilable
anthropocentrism: geared to short term human interests, treating nature as if it were an unbounded or infinite resource
an offence against the principle of ecology
ecology emphasises interconnectedness and interdependence, so it is impossible to accord priority to any particular species or any single part of nature
52
how are ecology and anthropocentrism compatible
when it focuses on long term human wellbeing
taking the interests of future generations into account
recognising human beings can only flourish under ecological sustainability
53
what does deep ecologists support for "from having to being" mean
being representing satisfaction derived from experience and sharing leading to personal growth and spiritual awareness
attitude of mind that transcends the individual ego, recognising that each person is intrinsically linked to other living things - buddhism
Naess' self realisation is attained through identification with others
54
how does lovelock depart from other ecologists
he stresses the self regulating nature of earth
55
how does Schumacher reinterpret conventional ethical thought in 'small is beautiful'
Buddist economics
right livelihood vs utility maximiser
challenges the notion that human needs and desires are infinite
so challenges conventional ideas about wealth and happiness (growth for growths sake)
56
what are the implications of a holistic view of biodiversity
should one species decline
the whole of nature including mankind would be adversely affected
it is a mistake to think of conservation in terms of individual species: the threat to biodiversity is a crisis for nature in itself
57
what can deep ecology be generally defined as
rejection of anthropocentrism and giving priority to the maintenance of nature.
Associated with values such as bio-centric equality, diversity and deindustrialisation.
58
what can shallow ecology be generally defined as
harnessing the lessons of ecology to human needs and ends.
Associated with values of sustainability and conservation.
59
why do deep ecologists criticse weak sustainability
it far too limited.
the human species is not seen as superior to other species, or more important than nature. In this sense the purpose of human life should be seen as to help sustain nature, rather than the other way around.
Zero growth and rejection of development: primitivism
Construction of a post industrial age when people live in small rural communities; rejection of industry and a return to nature
Sustainability is wrong in principle and not practically achievable given the damage to nature that economic growth will involve.
Short term economic considerations put before long term ecological concerns: nature is nothing more than a commodity or rescue
from having to being: transcending the individual ego and realising all living things are intrinsically linked
60
why do modernist ecologists seek to reduce environmental degradation
reduce the impact of the environmental limits to growth:
pollution, CO2 emissions, the exhaustion of non renewable energy sources
they threaten economic prosperity and performance
61
what two ideas is support for green capitalism based on
the market mechanism can and will respond to pressure from ecologically aware consumers by forcing firms to produce environmentally sound goods and adopt green technologies. Idea of consumer sovereignty and the trend towards “responsible consumption”
the idea that long term corporate profitability can only be achieved in the context of sustainable development. Capitalism has no interest in destroying the planet.
62
how do different modernist ecologists view green capitalism
Different balance between the state and capitalism:
Eco-liberal and Eco-conservative supporters favor unregulated market competition. Modernist ecologists favor a managed capitalist system in which environmental degradation is treated as a negative externality that can only be dealt with effectively by government.
63
why is classical liberalism incompatible with deep ecology
individualism is a stark example of anthropocentrism.
Liberal atomistic view of society had been seen as the political expression of the Cartesian Newtonian paradigm.
DE condemn utilitarianism, the moral philosophy that underpins much of classical liberalism – it equates happiness with material consumption.
64
why have traditional conservatives supported modernist or shallow ecology
Eco-conservatism is based on a romantic and nostalgic attachment to a rural way of life; threatened by the growth of towns and cities
It is clearly a reaction against industrialization and the ideas of progress.
These environmental sensibilities focus on the issue of conservation and on attempts to protect the natural heritage – woodlands, forests, etc.
The conservation of nature is thus linked to the defense of traditional values and institutions.
65
what kind of ecology do traditional conservatives support
Market based solutions to environmental problems: green capitalism. For example, the adoption of tax structures that incentivize eco-friendly individual and corporate behavior, emissions trading schemes such as the carbon credits proposed by the Kyoto Protocol 1997.
66
how does eco conservatism clash with deep ecology
It does not envisage the construction of a post-industrial society, or zero growth, founded on the principles of cooperation and ecology.
Rather, it pursues the maintenance of a more familiar pre-industrial society.
67
by what means do supporters of green capitalism seek to reduce environmental degradation
Market based solutions to environmental problems: green capitalism.
Changes to the tax system, either to penalize and discourage pollution or to reduce the use of finite resources.
For example, the adoption of tax structures that incentivize eco-friendly individual and corporate behavior, emissions trading schemes such as the carbon credits proposed by the Kyoto Protocol 1997.
68
what is the difference in the means in which green capitalism is put forward
Eco-liberal and eco-conservative supporters favour unregulated market competition.
Modernist ecologists favour a managed capitalist system in which environmental degradation is treated as a negative externality that can only be dealt with effectively by government.
69
why do deep ecologists advocate a paradigm shift
environmental degradation has profound cultural and intellectual roots.
the mechanistic, dualistic Newtonian-Cartesian model of world thinking that has dominated western societies since the 17th century.
as the world is thought of in terms of distinctions (humankind/nature, self/other, individual/society), nature is thought of as inert and valueless in itself – a mere resource for satisfying human needs.
nothing less than a paradigm change will properly address this challenge.
70
in what ways has a paradigm shift been advocated by deep ecologists
a wide range of ideas and theories to bring this about e.g. modern physics, eastern mysticism and primitive religion.
these are attractive as they offer radical holism; emphasizing the whole is more important than the individual parts - clearly departs form the dualistic thinking that has caused environmental problems.
this provides the basis for eco-centrism, prioritizing the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of narrowly human ends.
71
example of the liberal compatibility with ecology
For example, JS Mill criticized the rampant industrialization and his defense of minimal population growth on the grounds that the contemplation of nature is an indispensable aspect of human fulfilment.
72
what do modern liberals and ecologists have in common
a stress found within modern liberalism on self-realization and developmental individualism can be said to sustain a form of ‘enlightened’ anthropocentrism,
encourages people to take into account the long term not merely short-term interests.
thus favor higher pleasures (including an appreciation of the natural world), over lower pleasures (material consumption).
73
why have ecologists criticised materialism and consumerism as it provides a cultural basis for environmental degradation
in a ‘consumer society’ people are encouraged to place short-term economic considerations before longer-term environmental ones.
nature is viewed as nothing other than a commodity or resource; divorced from its intrinsic value
leads ecologists to post-materialism and anticonsujmerism
74
why have ecologists criticised materialism and consumerism as it undermines psychological and emotional well-being
modern advertising and marketing techniques tend to create ever-greater material desires, leaving consumers in a constant state of dissatisfaction, neediness and aspiration
however much they acquire, they always want more
it thus works through the generation not satisfaction of desires
75
define materialism
an emphasis on material needs and satisfaction
| implying a link between pleasure or happiness and level of material consumption
76
how have ecologists criticised materialism
by emphasising quality of life issues and concerns; divorcing happiness from a simple link to material acquisition
a movement from 'having' to 'being'
being satisfied by experience and sharing, personal growth and spiritual awareness
transcending the individual ego to recognise that each person is intrinsically linked to other living things
this is attained by the construction of a zero growth society in which a post industrial age features people living in small rural communities relying on craft skills
a return to nature
77
explain why eco-socialists argue socialism is naturally ecological
if wealth is owned in common it will be used in the interests of all, in the long-term interests of humanity (leading them to a significantly anthropocentric approach),
taking into account the ecological impact of economic activity.
78
explain what eco-socialists think is the root of environmental degradation
Rudolph Bahro (1982), noted the natural world had been despoiled by industrialisation, as a consequence of capitalism’s relentless quest for profit.
Capitalism’s anti-ecological stance arises firstly as private property encourages the belief that humans have dominated over nature.
The market economy thus ‘commodifies’ nature, turning it into something that only has exchange-value and so can be bought and sold; capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism leading to relentless growth.
79
explain why eco-socialists have been criticised for their prioritisation of 'red' goals over 'green' goals
‘red’, ‘pro-production’ tendency e ‘green’ priorities of ecologism.
Socialism champions the exploitation of the planet’s wealth, though for the good of all people not just the capitalist class.
socialist parties have been slow to adopt environmental policies because they continue to base electoral appeal on the promise of economic growth.
80
explain why eco-socialism is unlikely to solve environmental degradation
it is unlikely ecological problems will solved simply by a change in the ownership of wealth
e.g. state socialist regimes of the Soviet Union, that were ultimately responsible for some of the world’s most intractable environmental problems.
For example, the Aral Sea in Central Asia was once the 14th biggest lake in the world, but was shrunk to 10% of its original size due to the re-routing of two rivers.
81
explain how essentialist feminism is linked to deep ecology
women: nature, making them nurturing caring and compassionate. due to biological difference (women give life, suckle babies)
men: materialism, competitiveness, control (rank intellect above intuition, materialism above spirituality, mechanism above holism)
therefore female nature is more likely to be abhorred by the exploitation or destruction of the environment
as they recognise nature operates in and through them, intuitively sense that personal fulfilment stems from acting with nature rather than against it
Mary Daly, ‘Gyn/Ecology’ (1979) argued that women will eventually liberate themselves from patriarchal culture if they align themselves with their ‘female nature’. Reduce population of males, establish all female enclaves
82
how do androgynous eco-feminists view the difference in male/female nature
men are conditioned to be selfish materialistic and competitive
it is therefore possible but more difficult to embrace and align themselves with a deeper environmental focus and awareness
83
why do eco-feminists believe nature is under threat from patriarchy
patriarchy is responsible for environmental problems such as over population, habitat destruction and the over-exploitation of natural resources.
men are products of culture, whilst women are products of nature – the male world is synthetic, literally man made and based on human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.
patriarchy establishes the supremacy of human culture over nature, viewing the environment as nothing more than a force to be subdued, exploited or risen above.
ecological destruction and gender inequality are part of the same process in which ‘cultured men’ rule over ‘natural women’
84
who is the most prominent eco-anarchist
Murray Bookchin
| Our Synthetic Environment
85
example of eco-anarchists distaste for materialism and consumerism
Thoreau’s text ‘Excursions’, in which he resisted the progress and growing materialism which was the nature of American society in the mid 19th century.
86
what societies do eco-anarchists favour
decentralised societies, organized as a collection of communes or villages, close to nature, with each community attempting to be self-sufficient
this would make every community dependent on their natural environment, spontaneously gathering an understanding of organic relationships within ecology.
Bookchin viewed this as a “more intelligent and more loving use of the environment”.
primitivism
the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to conflict, coercion, and alienation
an anarchist society would involve a return to non-civilized ways of life through deindustrialisation and abandonment of large-scale organization technologies.
87
why do eco-socialists criticise sustainability
Eco-socialists: suggests capitalism can be harnessed when it can’t.
Consumerism and capitalism can be made ecologically sound. In fact, they will always generate waste and enormous production scales.
Sustainable capitalism is a contradiction in terms: constantly wanting us to desire something new. Materialism and consumerism.
88
how did Kovel argue capitalism's disastrous environmental effects are worse for the poor
Joel Kovel, argued that capitalism comes at the highest price for poor communities. Capitalism produces dumping, pollution and other horrible environmental side effects – the poor are the powerless and so suffer.
Rich neighbourhoods are not polluted with landfill sits
environmental justice movement have taken action to prevent incinerators in poor neighbourhoods; campaigned against public housing being built on toxic waste dumps.
In the developing world this is even worse e.g disaster in Bohpal Indian when American owned chemical plant leaked and let toxic gases into the air supply.
Only way to liberate poor is overthrow capitalist movement.
89
explain the eco feminist argument nature is under threat from institutions of male power
Men have a natural disposition to see themselves as superior and dominating over nature, whilst women are free of this patriarchal consciousness.
In this way, men are products of culture, whilst women are products of nature – the male world is synthetic, literally man made and based on human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.
Patriarchy therefore establishes the supremacy of human culture over nature, viewing the environment as nothing more than a force to be subdued, exploited or risen above.
Ecological destruction and gender inequality are part of the same process in which ‘cultured men’ rule over ‘natural women’.
90
explain the eco feminist belief in social revolution
overthrowal of corrupt patriarchal societies and construction of matriarchy instead.
For eco-feminists, this society would have an entirely new relationship with the natural world, with a firm commitment to eco-centrism. Women would be aligned with their female nature (Gyn/Ecology Mary Daly): both nature and women liberate.
91
describe how essentialist eco feminism is rooted in deep ecology
The essential and profound differences between men and women arise as women are associated with nature, making them nurturing caring and compassionate, whilst men are associated with materialism and so competitiveness, control and combination.
Particularly for modern eco-feminists, this female affinity with nature arises from biological difference: women are the givers of life, and hold a key role in nurturing new life, suckling babies for instance.
By contrast, the male world ranks intellect above intuition, materialism over spirituality, mechanistic relationships over holistic ones.
Female nature is more likely to be abhorred by the exploitation or forceful destruction of the environment, as they recognise that nature operates in and through them, and intuitively sense that personal fulfilment stems from acting with nature rather than against it – ‘female intuition’.
92
describe how sustainability is an implication of anthropocentrism
Anthropocentric shallow ecologists support sustainability, drawing on the Brundtland Report 1987 of ‘our common future’.
Shallow ecologists view humans as ‘stewards’ of the earth, with a duty to protect the natural world we live in.
Sustainability has implications of restricting fishing stocks, conservationism and renewable energy.
Also, international agreements such as the Koyoto Protocol 1997 (aiming to reduce emissions in industrialising countries) and the Paris Agreement 2015 (aiming to reduce global temperature increase).
93
describe eco centrism
Deep ecologists absolutely reject anthropocentrism, arguing that it is this viewpoint that is the very reason environmental degradation is occurring.
By contrast, ecocentrism gives priority to the maintenance of ecological balance, based on a belief in the intrinsic value of nature, put forward by Arne Naess in his 8 point platform.
Ecocentrism has also been articulated in Hardin’s theory of ‘land ethic’, a belief that “a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of nature”, viewed as ethical community.
Ecocentrism is most clearly embraced by so-called ‘deep’ ecologist, although eco-feminists also favour eco-centrism.
94
what are the implications of eco centrism
reform proposed by shallow ecologists is insufficient. Arne Naess proposed “a sustainably smaller human population” in his 8-point platform.
This reduction in the population is required in order that all organisms will have an “equal right to live and bloom”.
Therefore, aid and immigration to the developing world should be stopped absolutely.
Controversial zoo owner John Aspinall famously disregarded human needs, calling for a systematic cull of the population.
Other ecologists, such as eco-feminist Mary Daly have adapted this belief, calling for a male-only reduction in the population.
Furthermore, support for bioregionalism ensures the maintenance of ecological balance, crucial to eco-centrists. This is the idea that the natural ecosystem of an area dictates human activities e.g. a rejection of desert urbanisation of Las Vegas and Dubai, instead calling for a sparse nomadic existence in these areas.
95
what are the implications of the rejection of materialism and consumerism
Ecologists critique of materialism and consumerism leads them support zero growth, with the construction of a post-industrial age in which people live in small communities and rely on craft skills.
Such a view extends beyond deep ecology, to eco-feminism and eco-anarchism. In such a society, ‘quality of life’ issues would be emphasised, divorcing happiness from material acquisition.
Therefore, people go from having to being; an attitude of mind in which the ego is transcended, to recognize that each person is intrinsically linked to all other living things.
People become ‘outwardly poor but inwardly rich’ as they develop their spiritual awareness and personal growth. These views are often shaped by Eastern religions, most prominently Buddism.
96
why environmental ethics (sustainability) an example of challenging conventional moral thinking
ecologists have tried to extend moral obligations towards future generations, developing a kind of cross-generational justice that supports the idea of sustainability.
conventional moral thinkers argue all rights depend on reciprocity, disagreeing that it is absurd to endow people who have yet to be born with rights that impose duties on people currently alive since the unborn have no duties to the living. They would also argue it is also practically incalculable as there is a potentially unlimited size of future generations.
Additionally, the present generation may make sacrifices for the benefit of future generations who may be better of than themselves OR the current sacrifices are insufficient to meet future needs
97
explain why environmental ethics (animal rights) is an example of challenging conventional moral thinking
ecologists have applied moral standards developed in relation to human beings to other species and organisms.
This has applied most obviously in relation to animal rights, but it can also be extended further in the idea of bio centric equality, which holds that all organisms and entities in the ecosphere are of equal moral worth. Animal rights – ecocentrism: Peter Singer.
He argued that an altruistic concern for the well-being of other species derived from the fact that they are capable of suffering (are sentient), animals like humans have an interest in avoiding physical pain (utilitarianism) thus he has condemned SPECIESISM.
This argument does not apply to non-sentient life eg trees rocks rivers and argument has special consideration with more developed and self aware animals eg apes.
Singer also argued for REDUCED moral consideration for human foetuses and mentally impaired people who have no capacity for suffering
98
why have deep ecologists departed from conventional moral thinking?
deep ecologists have argued that nature has value in its own right, in which case nature is portrayed as an ethical community, within which human beings are nothing more than 'plain citizens' who have no more rights than any other member of the community.
Ecocentric ethical thinking - new metaphysics (way of thinking about the world).
This idea of value-in-nature can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a "thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community", viewed as ethical community.
Deep Ecologists call for the adoption of an "ecological consciousness" which allows for no distinction between the self and the other, collapsing the distinction between humankind and nature
99
why do social ecologists reject deep ecological theory
They argue that deep ecology ignores the radical social change that needs to accompany an ‘inner revolution’, but in turning its back on rational thought and embracing mysticism it succumbs to “vulgar Californian spiritualism” or “eco-la-la”.
Social ecologists are therefore overwhelmingly anthropocentric, arguing that true ecological change is only possible with a radical social change: the overthrowal of patriarchy, the state or capitalism.
100
why do shallow ecologists reject deep ecological theory
arguing it is deeply morally and philosophically flawed.
Morally, deep ecology is misguided as nature cannot have ‘intrinsic’ value, as environmental ethics can never be non-anthropocentric: good and bad are only meaningful when applied to human beings.
Therefore, ecological issues must be approached from an anthropocentric stance, albeit an “enlightened” one.
101
explain the radical new philosophy of deep ecology
deeper and more challenging philosophical approach that amounts to nothing less than a new metaphysics, a new way of thinking and understanding the world.
Its radical in a way and to a degree that does not apply elsewhere in ecological thought.
Deep ecology thus calls for the adoption of an ‘ecological consious’, a marked departure from the dominant Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm.
Deep ecologicsts criticise this as it is dualistic (humankind/nature, self/other) and so allows nature to be thought of as inert and valueless, a mere resource for satisfying human ends.
Deep ecologists thus advocate the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of narrow human ends.
102
describe the shallow commitment to sustainability
A concern about future generations, which extends the notion of human interests to encompass the human species as a whole, making no difference between the present generation and future generations.
Actions should be judged morally in terms of their impact on those who have yet to be born as well as on the living, especially in view of the entitlement of future generations to enjoy living condition no less advantageous that those enjoyed by the living generation.
103
how and why do deep ecologists reject the capitalist model
cultural basis for environmental degradation
Capitalism relentlessly searches for profit, despoiling the natural environment exponentially.
It views nature as nothing more than a commodity that has value only due to its exchange price when it is bought and sold.
This is because in a consumer society people are encouraged to place short-term economic considerations before longer-term environmental ones.
Hardin's 'land ethic'
Therefore, instead of the capitalist model, deep ecologists support a model of ‘zero growth’.
This would involve the construction of a ‘post-industrial age’ where people live in small, decentralised, rural communities and rely on craft skills.
In such a society widespread capitalist development would be forbidden, as the natural world is put before human advancement, reflected in a belief in bioregionalism and wilderness preservation.
104
why is deep ecology at odds with the values of capitalism
materialism tends to undermine rather than enhance psychological and emotional well-being.
As modern advertising techniques tend to create ever greater material desires, they leave consumers in a constant state of dissatisfaction.
A rejection of the capitalist values leads deep ecologists to instead argue for the value of ‘being’. Instead of becoming acquiring ever more ‘things’ the individual derives satisfaction derived from experience and sharing, leading to personal growth and spiritual awareness.
‘Being’ is an attitude of mind that would transcend the self or ego, and recognise that each person is intrinsically linked to all other living things, and indeed to the universe.
This allows people to be ‘outwardly poor but inwardly rich’, concerned with morality, justice, fulfilment and focus on ‘post material issues’ such as world peace, racial harmony, ecology and animal rights.
105
why are eco socialists at odds with the capitalist model
enemy of nature, whilst socialism is the friend.
Rudolph Bahro (1982), noted the natural world had been despoiled by industrialisation, as a consequence of capitalism’s relentless quest for profit.
Capitalism’s anti-ecological stance arises as private property encourages the belief that humans have dominated over nature.
The market economy thus ‘commodifies’ nature, turning it into something that only has exchange-value and so can be bought and sold; capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism leading to relentless growth.
Therefore, green-capitalism is a contradiction.
106
why are eco-socialists at odds with the implications of capitalism
the poor suffer the most.
Capitalism produces dumping, pollution and other horrible environmental side effects – the poor are the powerless and so suffer.
Rich neighbourhoods are not polluted with landfill sits.
Environmental justice movement– Joel Kovel, argued that capitalism comes at the highest price for poor communities. They have taken action to prevent incinerators in poor neighbourhoods; campaigned against public housing being built on toxic waste dump
In the developing world this is even worse e.g. indigenous people displaced – disaster in Bohpal Indian when American owned chemical plant leaked and let toxic gases into the air supply.
Only way to liberate poor is overthrow capitalist movement.
107
why are modernist ecologists not at odds with capitalism
Green capitalists argue the market is the only mechanism that encourages ecologically sound behaviour.
They argue there are market based solutions to environmental problems, as the market mechanism can and will respond to pressure from more ecologically aware consumers by forcing firms to produce environmentally sound goods and adopt green technologies.
This thinking relies on the idea of consumer sovereignty, as evidenced towards the present day trend of responsible consumption.
In addition, capitalist recognise that long term corporate profitability can only be achieved in a context of sustainable development. Capitalism thus has no interest in destroying the planet.
108
why do eco conservatives not reject the values of capitalism
arguing it promotes drive and hard work, as opposed to laziness as the few depend on the many.
109
why do eco-feminists support radical social change in order to achieve ecological goals
without the removal and overthrowal of patriarchy from society, environmental issues will always be disregarded by the ‘synthetic man’.
Men have a natural disposition to see themselves as superior and dominating over nature, whilst women are free of this patriarchal consciousness.
In this way, men are products of culture, whilst women are products of nature – the male world is synthetic, literally man made and based on human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.
Patriarchy therefore establishes the supremacy of human culture over nature, viewing the environment as nothing more than a force to be subdued, exploited or risen above.
Ecological destruction and gender inequality are part of the same process in which ‘cultured men’ rule over ‘natural women’.
110
why and how do eco anarchists support radical social change in order to achieve ecological goals
state and authority power structures must be completely dismantled and abolished before environmental progress is possible.
Due to the plasticity of human nature, when held under authority humans are divorced from their true being and spirit – encouraged to be competitive, materialistic and corrupt
in an anarchist society humans would spontaneously obtain an understanding of organic relationships within ecology, as social institutions of such a society would reflect the natural balance of ecosystems (Bookchin) - only possible as human nature is malleable.
These communes would attempt to be self-sufficent, living close to nature, a “more intelligent and more loving use of the environment” – Bookchin.
primitivism, involving a return to non-civilized ways of life through deindustrialisation, abolition of the division of labour or specialization, and abandonment of large-scale organization technologies (John Zerzan).
A primitive society is without coercion or exploitation, creating natural, unregulated harmony.
111
why do eco-socialists advocate radical social change to achieve ecological goals
arguing ecological goals can only be achieved after a socialist revolution
capitalism is the root cause of the environmental crisis.
Rudolph Baro proposed this analysis, noting the natural world had been despoiled by industrialisation, as a consequence of capitalism’s relentless quest for profit.
Capitalism’s anti-ecological stance arises as private property encourages the belief that humans have dominated over nature.
The market economy thus ‘commodifies’ nature, turning it into something that only has exchange-value and so can be bought and sold; capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism leading to relentless growth.
112
why do deep ecologists not require radical social change to achieve ecological goals
They argue social change, radical or reformist cannot bring ecological consciousness into existence.
Instead, they support a change that is internal: a consciousness, going from ‘having to being’. Instead of becoming acquiring ever more ‘things’ the individual derives satisfaction derived from experience and sharing, leading to personal growth and spiritual awareness.
‘Being’ is an attitude of mind that would transcend the self or ego, and recognise that each person is intrinsically linked to all other living things, and indeed to the universe.
This allows people to be ‘outwardly poor but inwardly rich’, concerned with morality, justice, fulfilment and focus on ‘post material issues’ such as world peace, racial harmony, ecology and animal rights.
113
why do shallow ecologists not support radical social change
reform: sustainability
vital tool for the continuation of the human species
needs of humans as a whole should be considered in cross generational justice
stewards preserving and protecting the environment so there is no decline in standard of living in future
114
what do all ecologists agree on
real and present threat to the environment
imminent crisis
that we should change the way we interact in the world; reserving attitude to nature
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increase population growth
declining resources
tropical rainforest decreased
reduced biodiversity
increased extinction
increased pollution
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