Ecologism

Question 1

Environmentalism

Answer 1

A concern about the natural environment
a desire to reduce environmental degradation
a policy orientation rather than ideological stance

Question 2

deep ecology

Answer 2

a green ideological perspective that rejects anthropocentrism and gives priority to the maintenance of nature

associated with values such as bio centric and equality diversity and decentralisation

Question 3

shallow ecology

Answer 3

a green ideological perspective that harnesses the lessons of ecology to human needs and ends as they are of overriding moral and political importance

such views imply, albeit in different ways, that the non-human world is only of value insofar as it satisfies human ends.

is associated with values such as sustainability and conservation eg population control; limiting non renewable resources and reducing pollution

humanist ecology

Question 4

anthropocentrism

Answer 4

Anthropocentrism is the belief that human needs and interests are of overriding moral and philosophical importance.

All conventional political ideologies are based on anthropocentrism, as reflected in an emphasis on human rights, humanity, social order, the interests of a nation/race, and so on.

Such views imply, albeit in different ways, that the non-human world is only of value insofar as it satisfies human ends.

Some ecological thinking is nevertheless based on anthropocentric assumptions, as in the case of so-called ‘shallow’ ecology.

Question 5

ecocentrism

Answer 5

an approach to understanding that prioritises the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of human ends

In this view, humans are merely part of nature, contributing to its wellbeing, and have no greater, or separate value.

Ecocentrism implies a belief in value-in-nature, which can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of nature, viewed as ethical community.

Ecocentrism is most clearly embraced by so-called ‘deep’ ecologist, although eco-feminists also favour ecocentrism.

Question 6

ecology

Answer 6

branch of biology
focus s on the ways plante and animals are sustained by self regulating natural systems

composed of living and non living elements

interconnectedness and equilibrium
ecosystems tend towards a state of harmony through a system of self regulation

Question 7

key points of deep ecology

Answer 7

humans must develop a new CONSIOUSNESS that sees humankind as an intrinsic part of the natural world

earth is a single complete organism
humans are part of that whole

Question 8

key features of shallow ecology?

Answer 8

humans should care for the environment for its own sake

different aspects of the natural world are interconnected so our treatment of nature should take this into account

existing political and economic structures must be transformed so that they place environmental issues at the centre of their concerns

Question 9

what do shallow deep and liberal environmentalists think about interconnectedness?

Answer 9

shallow - different aspects of the natural world are interconnected so our treatment of nature should take this into account

deep - earth is a single complete organism
humans are part of that whole

liberal environmentalism - environmental issues can be treated separately

Question 10

what is the fundamental feature of eco feminism?

Answer 10

environmental science has been patriarchal in nature

the link between patriarchy and environmental degradation is that men have a natural disposition to see themselves superior in nature

women are free of this patriarchal consciousness seeing them self as part of nature not above it

Question 11

entropy

Answer 11

a tendency towards decay or disintegration exhibited by all closed systems

Question 12

industrialism

Answer 12

an economic system characterised by relentless growth and the accumulation of capital

Question 13

what do deep ecologists advocate as a solution to industrialism

Answer 13

zero growth

if the origins of ecological crisis are in materialism, consumerism and the fixation with growth

this is the solution
zero growth and the construction of a post industrial age
people rely on craft skills living in small rural communities

literally a return to nature

Question 14

space ship earth theory

Answer 14

the belief that the earths resources are finite, limited and exhaustible
just as a spaceship will inevitably run out of supplies so too will the earth

the spaceship is a closed system - and so has a tendency towards entropy as it is not sustained by external inputs

kenneth boulding

Question 15

holism

Answer 15

associated with the views of capra
“the turning point” 1982

the belief that the natural world is a single organic whole

influenced by eastern mysticism and buddhism

Question 16

gaia

Answer 16

the earth is seen as a single living organic whole
even inanimate objects are included in the whole

it self regulated global temperature atmospheric content ocean salinity and mainly its habitability

1960s james lovelock

Question 17

biodiversity

Answer 17

refers to the belief that the fullest possible range of the earths plants and animal species should be preserved

Question 18

biocentric ecology

Answer 18

this principle implies that all organisms and entities in the biosphere are of equal moral worth

leopoldo “sand country almanac” is the best expression of this

Question 19

weak sustainability

Answer 19

associated with shallow ecology

reconciled ecology with economic growth (at a slower pace)

this is done through changes to the tax system; penalising and discouraging pollution or to reduce the use of finite resources

Question 20

strong sustainability

Answer 20

social or deep ecology

greater stress on preserving natural capital and is more critical of economic growth

the fixation with materialism consumerism and economic growth means the only solution is ZERO GROWTH in a POST INDUSTRIAL AGE

people live in small rural communities relying on craft skills rejection of industry and technology - return to nature

Question 21

how have some ecologists supported capitalism?

Answer 21

Some ecologists have supported capitalism, even advancing the ideas of so-called ‘green capitalism’.

The idea that capitalism is naturally ecological or green, stem from the belief that capitalist enterprises are highly responsive to consumer pressures.

In this view, as consumers become increasingly ecologically aware, recognising that climate change, pollution and so on negatively impact on the quality of their lives, producers will respond by producing new good and favouring green technologies.

Ultimately capitalists will recognise that long-term corporate profitability can only be ensured in the context of sustainable development.

Question 22

what does the tragedy of the commons explain

Answer 22

it is a model explaining why over exploitation of environmental resources has occurred

this is explained in terms of the behaviours of individuals in a community, the actions of groups in a society etc

Question 23

explain the “tragedy of the commons”

Answer 23

there is environmental vulnerability as people have open access to collective resources

common land or common fish stocks encourage individuals to act in rational self interested ways

so exploiting the resources available to satisfy their needs (including their family and community)

the impact of this may be devastating as resources are depleted and despoiled - rational individuals are self defeated in irrational ends

Question 24

how can entropy be slowed down

Answer 24

if governments and private citizens respect ecological principles

ecologists argue the human species will only survive and prosper if it recognises that it is merely one element of a complex biosphere

so sustainability should be adhered to

Question 25

what is buddhist economics

Answer 25

Schumacher: small is beautiful

individuals are NOT utility maximisers
disagreed with the convention obsession with wealth creation

argued production facilities foster personal growth by developing skills and talents
help to over come egocenteredness by forging social bonds as people work together

Question 26

explain the environmentally ethical issue of a moral obligation to future generations

Answer 26

the question of our moral obligation to future generations

forced ecologists to extend the notion of human interests to encompass the human species as a whole; making no distinction between past and future generations

“futurity”

Question 27

why do shallow ecologists advocate concern for futurity

Answer 27

care for and obligations towards future generations can be seen as a natural duty; cross generational justice is an extension of a moral concern for our children and their children and so on

thus is linked to the ideas of ecological stewardship - the idea that no generation ‘owns’ nature; rather each generations merely protects and conserves nature for the benefit of generations to come.

This argument is sometimes linked to conservative thinking about the nature of tradition and the idea that society is a partnership between the living and the dead.

Liberals have sometimes used the principle of individualism to acknowledge the rights of individuals yet to be born.

Question 28

why has ecological stewardship been criticised

Answer 28

conventional moral thinkers argue all rights depend on reciprocity

absurd to endow people who have yet to be born with rights that impose duties on people currently alive since the unborn have no duties to the living

it is also practically incalculable
potentially unlimited size of future generations

the present generation may make sacrifices for bthe benefit of future generations who may be better of than themselves
OR the current sacrifices are insufficient to meet future needs

Question 29

explain the environmental ethical approach to animals and organisms

Answer 29

Animal rights - ecocentrism
Peter Singer

he argued that an altruistic concern for the well being of other species derived from the fact that they are capable of suffering (are sentient)

animals like humans have an interest in avoiding physical pain (utilitarianism)
thus he has condemned SPECIESISM

argument does not apply to non sentient life eg trees rocks rivers
and argument has special consideration with more developed and self aware animals eg apes

REDUCED moral consideration for human foetuses and mentally impaired people who have no capacity for suffering

Question 30

what is modernist or reformist equality

Answer 30

form of green politics practised by environmental pressure groups and a range of political parties

advancers ecological principles
promotes environmentally sound practices

WITHOUT rejecting capitalism modernity (individual self seeking, materialism, economic growth)

shallow or humanist ecology

Question 31

what is the key feature of modernist ecology

Answer 31

recognition that there are environmental limits to growth

pollution
co2 emissions increase
the exhaustion of non renewable energy sources

threaten prosperity and economic performance

so support sustainable development (weak sustainability); environmentally sustainable capitalism

getting rich more slowly

Question 32

how have deep/radical ecologists revised conventional ethical thought

Answer 32

Ecocentric ethical thinking - new metaphysics (way of thinking about the world)

More radically, ‘deep’ ecologists argue that nature has value in its own right; that is, intrinsic value not just an instrumental value deriving from its benefits to human beings

Nature is an ethical community; in which humans are nothing more than “plain citizens” with no more rights than any other member of the community.

This idea of value-in-nature can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a “thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community”, viewed as ethical community.

DE call for the adoption of an “ecological consciousness” which allows for no distinction between the self and the other, collapsing the distinction between humankind and nature

Question 33

Biocentric equality

Answer 33

The principle that all organisms and entities in the biosphere are of equal moral worth, each being an expression of nature

Arne Naess all things have an “equal right to live and bloom”

reflects the benefits of biodiversity

Question 34

how do humanist or shallow ecologists criticise deep ecology

Answer 34

they argue it is morally and philosophically flawed

this stems from the deep ecologists view on environmental ethics; idea of the “intrinsic” value of nature

humanists argue environmental ethics can’t be non anthropocentric because morality is a human construct
“good” and “bad” is only meaningful when applied to human beings with the capacity for suffering and self reflection

Question 35

how do social ecologists criticised deep ecologist

Answer 35

Murray Bookchin

it fails to recognise the impact on the relationship between humankind and nature of social and economic systems e.g. capitalism or patriarchy; dismissing them as expressions of the Cartesian Newtonian paradigm

concerned with an inner revolution, which Bookchina argues can’t be achieved without radical social change

By rejecting rationalism and embracing mysticism, trying to re-echant nature
it succumbs to the “vulgar Californian spiritualism” or ECO-LA-LA

Question 36

Bahro

Answer 36

presented capitalism as the root cause of the environmental crisis

socialism is the solution

links social justice to environmental sustainability

moved beyond conventional ecological crisis had become so pressing that it must take precedence over the class struggle

Question 37

examples of sustainable development in practice

Answer 37

1987 Brundtland Report

Micheal Reynolds - earthships

Question 38

who first distinguished between shallow and deep ecology and why

Answer 38

Arne Naess in 1972

shallow concerns failed to appreciate that ecologist was a philosophy that should exist for its own sake; still placing a higher level on humans than the rest of the world

deep ecology considers the natural world as a system within which humankind has equal status with other species; environmental protection is worth doing for the sake of it, not for human benefit

Question 39

what are two key points of Naess’ 8 point platform

Answer 39

1 the wellbeing and flourishing of human and non human life on earth have value in themselves. these values are independent of the usefulness of the non human world for human purposes

4 the flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a sustainably small human population

Question 40

sustainability in practice

Answer 40

Kyoto 1997 - targets on industrialised countries related to greenhouse gases

Rio 2012 - aim to build a green economy and improve international coordination

Paris Agreement 2015 - increase the ability to adapt to climate change, efforts to limit climate change increase in temp.

Question 41

what methods have shallow ecologists used as a means of reducing environmental degradation

Answer 41

fishing bans and quotas imposed by Eu
management of fishing stocks
Obama administration: promoting renewable power sources e.g. solar energy and and

Question 42

what methods have deep ecologists used as a means of reducing environmental degradation

Answer 42

paradigm shift in consciousness
changed attitudes to material wealth and economic growth (zero growth)
reduction in the worlds population (arne ness)
this reduced population would be more self sufficient, with very limited international trade and movement of people

ecofeminist mary daly argued this should be specifically men

Question 43

how do ecofeminists argue women are linked to nature

Answer 43

both nature and women are treated in an inferior manner by society, by men
both women and the natural world are viewed as the other, manipulated, controlled and oppressed

women have a physiological connection with nature via birth and childcare; menstrual cycles are linked to the lunar cycle

Question 44

what society do ecofeminists desire

Answer 44

pre industrial world should be promoted and celebrated as industrialisation and capitalism are male dominated processes

women only areas should be established so women can align themselves more fundamentally with their feminine nature, in spaces free from patriarchal influence
BUT some think men can develop environmental focus, it is just more challenging

Mary Daly urged women to access the wild woman within them to liberate themselves from the social restrictions of female behaviour

Question 45

explain why and how deep ecologists advocate population control

Answer 45

call for a substantial decrease in the human population
as it is the only way of ensuring the flourishing of non human life

deep ecologists have thus rejected aid to the developing world, called for a reduction in LIC birth rates, and argued immigration to LIC should be stopped

Question 46

explain why and how deep ecologists advocate simple living

Answer 46

they believe humans have no right to reduce the richness and diversity of nature, except to satisfy vital needs (Naess)

“walking lighter on the earth”

emphasis on quality of life: being
not quality of possessions: having

self-actualisation occurs as egoism and materialism are transcended

people become “inwardly rich but outwardly poor”

Question 47

explain why and how deep ecologists advocate bioregionalism

Answer 47

nature and human society should be reconfigured in line with naturally defined regions - ecosystems

live according to climate, landscape and natural rhythms of zone of earth you inhabit.

Harmony with natural world, don’t impose will to try to change it in any way.

E.g. Deserts sould be nomadic e.g. Las Vegas and Dubai impermissible.

at odds with established territorial divisions

Question 48

explain why and how deep ecologists have advocated wilderness preservation

Answer 48

seek to preserve nature “wild and free” based on the belief that nature, unspoilt by human intervention, is a repository of wisdom and morality

preservationism: restricting the human impact on the environment; even if its in the best interest of humanity to develop the area

Thoreau’s spiritual truth and self-reliance quest led him to flee civilised life and live in solitude, close to nature

Question 49

why do deep ecologists criticise anthropocentrism

Answer 49

Capra traced the origins of the mechanistic, reductionistic world view to Newton and Descartes, before which the world had been understood in organic terms

this happened in the Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm
this is dualistic, understanding the world in terms of positions e.g. self/other, individual/society, nature/human
instead of oneness and interconnectedness

this thinking makes it easy to think of nature as inert and valueless in itself, making it merely a resource that is available to satisfy human ends

Question 50

quote on biocentric equality (environmental ethics)

Answer 50

Aldo Leopolds Sand County Almanac

land ethic: a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. it is wrong otherwise

Question 51

why is it argued ecology and anthropocentrism are irreconcilable

Answer 51

anthropocentrism: geared to short term human interests, treating nature as if it were an unbounded or infinite resource

an offence against the principle of ecology

ecology emphasises interconnectedness and interdependence, so it is impossible to accord priority to any particular species or any single part of nature

Question 52

how are ecology and anthropocentrism compatible

Answer 52

when it focuses on long term human wellbeing
taking the interests of future generations into account
recognising human beings can only flourish under ecological sustainability

Question 53

what does deep ecologists support for “from having to being” mean

Answer 53

being representing satisfaction derived from experience and sharing leading to personal growth and spiritual awareness

attitude of mind that transcends the individual ego, recognising that each person is intrinsically linked to other living things - buddhism

Naess’ self realisation is attained through identification with others

Question 54

how does lovelock depart from other ecologists

Answer 54

he stresses the self regulating nature of earth

Question 55

how does Schumacher reinterpret conventional ethical thought in ‘small is beautiful’

Answer 55

Buddist economics

right livelihood vs utility maximiser

challenges the notion that human needs and desires are infinite
so challenges conventional ideas about wealth and happiness (growth for growths sake)

Question 56

what are the implications of a holistic view of biodiversity

Answer 56

should one species decline
the whole of nature including mankind would be adversely affected
it is a mistake to think of conservation in terms of individual species: the threat to biodiversity is a crisis for nature in itself

Question 57

what can deep ecology be generally defined as

Answer 57

rejection of anthropocentrism and giving priority to the maintenance of nature.

Associated with values such as bio-centric equality, diversity and deindustrialisation.

Question 58

what can shallow ecology be generally defined as

Answer 58

harnessing the lessons of ecology to human needs and ends.

Associated with values of sustainability and conservation.

Question 59

why do deep ecologists criticse weak sustainability

Answer 59

it far too limited.
the human species is not seen as superior to other species, or more important than nature. In this sense the purpose of human life should be seen as to help sustain nature, rather than the other way around.

Zero growth and rejection of development: primitivism
Construction of a post industrial age when people live in small rural communities; rejection of industry and a return to nature

Sustainability is wrong in principle and not practically achievable given the damage to nature that economic growth will involve.
Short term economic considerations put before long term ecological concerns: nature is nothing more than a commodity or rescue

from having to being: transcending the individual ego and realising all living things are intrinsically linked

Question 60

why do modernist ecologists seek to reduce environmental degradation

Answer 60

reduce the impact of the environmental limits to growth:

pollution, CO2 emissions, the exhaustion of non renewable energy sources

they threaten economic prosperity and performance

Question 61

what two ideas is support for green capitalism based on

Answer 61

the market mechanism can and will respond to pressure from ecologically aware consumers by forcing firms to produce environmentally sound goods and adopt green technologies. Idea of consumer sovereignty and the trend towards “responsible consumption”

the idea that long term corporate profitability can only be achieved in the context of sustainable development. Capitalism has no interest in destroying the planet.

Question 62

how do different modernist ecologists view green capitalism

Answer 62

Different balance between the state and capitalism:

Eco-liberal and Eco-conservative supporters favor unregulated market competition. Modernist ecologists favor a managed capitalist system in which environmental degradation is treated as a negative externality that can only be dealt with effectively by government.

Question 63

why is classical liberalism incompatible with deep ecology

Answer 63

individualism is a stark example of anthropocentrism.

Liberal atomistic view of society had been seen as the political expression of the Cartesian Newtonian paradigm.

DE condemn utilitarianism, the moral philosophy that underpins much of classical liberalism – it equates happiness with material consumption.

Question 64

why have traditional conservatives supported modernist or shallow ecology

Answer 64

Eco-conservatism is based on a romantic and nostalgic attachment to a rural way of life; threatened by the growth of towns and cities
It is clearly a reaction against industrialization and the ideas of progress.

These environmental sensibilities focus on the issue of conservation and on attempts to protect the natural heritage – woodlands, forests, etc.

The conservation of nature is thus linked to the defense of traditional values and institutions.

Question 65

what kind of ecology do traditional conservatives support

Answer 65

Market based solutions to environmental problems: green capitalism. For example, the adoption of tax structures that incentivize eco-friendly individual and corporate behavior, emissions trading schemes such as the carbon credits proposed by the Kyoto Protocol 1997.

Question 66

how does eco conservatism clash with deep ecology

Answer 66

It does not envisage the construction of a post-industrial society, or zero growth, founded on the principles of cooperation and ecology.

Rather, it pursues the maintenance of a more familiar pre-industrial society.

Question 67

by what means do supporters of green capitalism seek to reduce environmental degradation

Answer 67

Market based solutions to environmental problems: green capitalism.

Changes to the tax system, either to penalize and discourage pollution or to reduce the use of finite resources.

For example, the adoption of tax structures that incentivize eco-friendly individual and corporate behavior, emissions trading schemes such as the carbon credits proposed by the Kyoto Protocol 1997.

Question 68

what is the difference in the means in which green capitalism is put forward

Answer 68

Eco-liberal and eco-conservative supporters favour unregulated market competition.

Modernist ecologists favour a managed capitalist system in which environmental degradation is treated as a negative externality that can only be dealt with effectively by government.

Question 69

why do deep ecologists advocate a paradigm shift

Answer 69

environmental degradation has profound cultural and intellectual roots.

the mechanistic, dualistic Newtonian-Cartesian model of world thinking that has dominated western societies since the 17th century.

as the world is thought of in terms of distinctions (humankind/nature, self/other, individual/society), nature is thought of as inert and valueless in itself – a mere resource for satisfying human needs.

nothing less than a paradigm change will properly address this challenge.

Question 70

in what ways has a paradigm shift been advocated by deep ecologists

Answer 70

a wide range of ideas and theories to bring this about e.g. modern physics, eastern mysticism and primitive religion.

these are attractive as they offer radical holism; emphasizing the whole is more important than the individual parts - clearly departs form the dualistic thinking that has caused environmental problems.

this provides the basis for eco-centrism, prioritizing the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of narrowly human ends.

Question 71

example of the liberal compatibility with ecology

Answer 71

For example, JS Mill criticized the rampant industrialization and his defense of minimal population growth on the grounds that the contemplation of nature is an indispensable aspect of human fulfilment.

Question 72

what do modern liberals and ecologists have in common

Answer 72

a stress found within modern liberalism on self-realization and developmental individualism can be said to sustain a form of ‘enlightened’ anthropocentrism,

encourages people to take into account the long term not merely short-term interests.

thus favor higher pleasures (including an appreciation of the natural world), over lower pleasures (material consumption).

Question 73

why have ecologists criticised materialism and consumerism as it provides a cultural basis for environmental degradation

Answer 73

in a ‘consumer society’ people are encouraged to place short-term economic considerations before longer-term environmental ones.

nature is viewed as nothing other than a commodity or resource; divorced from its intrinsic value

leads ecologists to post-materialism and anticonsujmerism

Question 74

why have ecologists criticised materialism and consumerism as it undermines psychological and emotional well-being

Answer 74

modern advertising and marketing techniques tend to create ever-greater material desires, leaving consumers in a constant state of dissatisfaction, neediness and aspiration
however much they acquire, they always want more
it thus works through the generation not satisfaction of desires

Question 75

define materialism

Answer 75

an emphasis on material needs and satisfaction

implying a link between pleasure or happiness and level of material consumption

Question 76

how have ecologists criticised materialism

Answer 76

by emphasising quality of life issues and concerns; divorcing happiness from a simple link to material acquisition

a movement from ‘having’ to ‘being’
being satisfied by experience and sharing, personal growth and spiritual awareness
transcending the individual ego to recognise that each person is intrinsically linked to other living things

this is attained by the construction of a zero growth society in which a post industrial age features people living in small rural communities relying on craft skills
a return to nature

Question 77

explain why eco-socialists argue socialism is naturally ecological

Answer 77

if wealth is owned in common it will be used in the interests of all, in the long-term interests of humanity (leading them to a significantly anthropocentric approach),

taking into account the ecological impact of economic activity.

Question 78

explain what eco-socialists think is the root of environmental degradation

Answer 78

Rudolph Bahro (1982), noted the natural world had been despoiled by industrialisation, as a consequence of capitalism’s relentless quest for profit.

Capitalism’s anti-ecological stance arises firstly as private property encourages the belief that humans have dominated over nature.

The market economy thus ‘commodifies’ nature, turning it into something that only has exchange-value and so can be bought and sold; capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism leading to relentless growth.

Question 79

explain why eco-socialists have been criticised for their prioritisation of ‘red’ goals over ‘green’ goals

Answer 79

‘red’, ‘pro-production’ tendency e ‘green’ priorities of ecologism.

Socialism champions the exploitation of the planet’s wealth, though for the good of all people not just the capitalist class.

socialist parties have been slow to adopt environmental policies because they continue to base electoral appeal on the promise of economic growth.

Question 80

explain why eco-socialism is unlikely to solve environmental degradation

Answer 80

it is unlikely ecological problems will solved simply by a change in the ownership of wealth

e.g. state socialist regimes of the Soviet Union, that were ultimately responsible for some of the world’s most intractable environmental problems.

For example, the Aral Sea in Central Asia was once the 14th biggest lake in the world, but was shrunk to 10% of its original size due to the re-routing of two rivers.

Question 81

explain how essentialist feminism is linked to deep ecology

Answer 81

women: nature, making them nurturing caring and compassionate. due to biological difference (women give life, suckle babies)
men: materialism, competitiveness, control (rank intellect above intuition, materialism above spirituality, mechanism above holism)

therefore female nature is more likely to be abhorred by the exploitation or destruction of the environment
as they recognise nature operates in and through them, intuitively sense that personal fulfilment stems from acting with nature rather than against it

Mary Daly, ‘Gyn/Ecology’ (1979) argued that women will eventually liberate themselves from patriarchal culture if they align themselves with their ‘female nature’. Reduce population of males, establish all female enclaves

Question 82

how do androgynous eco-feminists view the difference in male/female nature

Answer 82

men are conditioned to be selfish materialistic and competitive

it is therefore possible but more difficult to embrace and align themselves with a deeper environmental focus and awareness

Question 83

why do eco-feminists believe nature is under threat from patriarchy

Answer 83

patriarchy is responsible for environmental problems such as over population, habitat destruction and the over-exploitation of natural resources.

men are products of culture, whilst women are products of nature – the male world is synthetic, literally man made and based on human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.

patriarchy establishes the supremacy of human culture over nature, viewing the environment as nothing more than a force to be subdued, exploited or risen above.

ecological destruction and gender inequality are part of the same process in which ‘cultured men’ rule over ‘natural women’

Question 84

who is the most prominent eco-anarchist

Answer 84

Murray Bookchin

Our Synthetic Environment

Question 85

example of eco-anarchists distaste for materialism and consumerism

Answer 85

Thoreau’s text ‘Excursions’, in which he resisted the progress and growing materialism which was the nature of American society in the mid 19th century.

Question 86

what societies do eco-anarchists favour

Answer 86

decentralised societies, organized as a collection of communes or villages, close to nature, with each community attempting to be self-sufficient
this would make every community dependent on their natural environment, spontaneously gathering an understanding of organic relationships within ecology.

Bookchin viewed this as a “more intelligent and more loving use of the environment”.

primitivism
the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to conflict, coercion, and alienation
an anarchist society would involve a return to non-civilized ways of life through deindustrialisation and abandonment of large-scale organization technologies.

Question 87

why do eco-socialists criticise sustainability

Answer 87

Eco-socialists: suggests capitalism can be harnessed when it can’t.

Consumerism and capitalism can be made ecologically sound. In fact, they will always generate waste and enormous production scales.

Sustainable capitalism is a contradiction in terms: constantly wanting us to desire something new. Materialism and consumerism.

Question 88

how did Kovel argue capitalism’s disastrous environmental effects are worse for the poor

Answer 88

Joel Kovel, argued that capitalism comes at the highest price for poor communities. Capitalism produces dumping, pollution and other horrible environmental side effects – the poor are the powerless and so suffer.
Rich neighbourhoods are not polluted with landfill sits

environmental justice movement have taken action to prevent incinerators in poor neighbourhoods; campaigned against public housing being built on toxic waste dumps.

In the developing world this is even worse e.g disaster in Bohpal Indian when American owned chemical plant leaked and let toxic gases into the air supply.

Only way to liberate poor is overthrow capitalist movement.

Question 89

explain the eco feminist argument nature is under threat from institutions of male power

Answer 89

Men have a natural disposition to see themselves as superior and dominating over nature, whilst women are free of this patriarchal consciousness.

In this way, men are products of culture, whilst women are products of nature – the male world is synthetic, literally man made and based on human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.

Patriarchy therefore establishes the supremacy of human culture over nature, viewing the environment as nothing more than a force to be subdued, exploited or risen above.

Ecological destruction and gender inequality are part of the same process in which ‘cultured men’ rule over ‘natural women’.

Question 90

explain the eco feminist belief in social revolution

Answer 90

overthrowal of corrupt patriarchal societies and construction of matriarchy instead.

For eco-feminists, this society would have an entirely new relationship with the natural world, with a firm commitment to eco-centrism. Women would be aligned with their female nature (Gyn/Ecology Mary Daly): both nature and women liberate.

Question 91

describe how essentialist eco feminism is rooted in deep ecology

Answer 91

The essential and profound differences between men and women arise as women are associated with nature, making them nurturing caring and compassionate, whilst men are associated with materialism and so competitiveness, control and combination.

Particularly for modern eco-feminists, this female affinity with nature arises from biological difference: women are the givers of life, and hold a key role in nurturing new life, suckling babies for instance.

By contrast, the male world ranks intellect above intuition, materialism over spirituality, mechanistic relationships over holistic ones.

Female nature is more likely to be abhorred by the exploitation or forceful destruction of the environment, as they recognise that nature operates in and through them, and intuitively sense that personal fulfilment stems from acting with nature rather than against it – ‘female intuition’.

Question 92

describe how sustainability is an implication of anthropocentrism

Answer 92

Anthropocentric shallow ecologists support sustainability, drawing on the Brundtland Report 1987 of ‘our common future’.

Shallow ecologists view humans as ‘stewards’ of the earth, with a duty to protect the natural world we live in.

Sustainability has implications of restricting fishing stocks, conservationism and renewable energy.

Also, international agreements such as the Koyoto Protocol 1997 (aiming to reduce emissions in industrialising countries) and the Paris Agreement 2015 (aiming to reduce global temperature increase).

Question 93

describe eco centrism

Answer 93

Deep ecologists absolutely reject anthropocentrism, arguing that it is this viewpoint that is the very reason environmental degradation is occurring.

By contrast, ecocentrism gives priority to the maintenance of ecological balance, based on a belief in the intrinsic value of nature, put forward by Arne Naess in his 8 point platform.

Ecocentrism has also been articulated in Hardin’s theory of ‘land ethic’, a belief that “a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of nature”, viewed as ethical community.

Ecocentrism is most clearly embraced by so-called ‘deep’ ecologist, although eco-feminists also favour eco-centrism.

Question 94

what are the implications of eco centrism

Answer 94

reform proposed by shallow ecologists is insufficient. Arne Naess proposed “a sustainably smaller human population” in his 8-point platform.
This reduction in the population is required in order that all organisms will have an “equal right to live and bloom”.

Therefore, aid and immigration to the developing world should be stopped absolutely.
Controversial zoo owner John Aspinall famously disregarded human needs, calling for a systematic cull of the population.
Other ecologists, such as eco-feminist Mary Daly have adapted this belief, calling for a male-only reduction in the population.

Furthermore, support for bioregionalism ensures the maintenance of ecological balance, crucial to eco-centrists. This is the idea that the natural ecosystem of an area dictates human activities e.g. a rejection of desert urbanisation of Las Vegas and Dubai, instead calling for a sparse nomadic existence in these areas.

Question 95

what are the implications of the rejection of materialism and consumerism

Answer 95

Ecologists critique of materialism and consumerism leads them support zero growth, with the construction of a post-industrial age in which people live in small communities and rely on craft skills.

Such a view extends beyond deep ecology, to eco-feminism and eco-anarchism. In such a society, ‘quality of life’ issues would be emphasised, divorcing happiness from material acquisition.

Therefore, people go from having to being; an attitude of mind in which the ego is transcended, to recognize that each person is intrinsically linked to all other living things.

People become ‘outwardly poor but inwardly rich’ as they develop their spiritual awareness and personal growth. These views are often shaped by Eastern religions, most prominently Buddism.

Question 96

why environmental ethics (sustainability) an example of challenging conventional moral thinking

Answer 96

ecologists have tried to extend moral obligations towards future generations, developing a kind of cross-generational justice that supports the idea of sustainability.

conventional moral thinkers argue all rights depend on reciprocity, disagreeing that it is absurd to endow people who have yet to be born with rights that impose duties on people currently alive since the unborn have no duties to the living. They would also argue it is also practically incalculable as there is a potentially unlimited size of future generations.

Additionally, the present generation may make sacrifices for the benefit of future generations who may be better of than themselves OR the current sacrifices are insufficient to meet future needs

Question 97

explain why environmental ethics (animal rights) is an example of challenging conventional moral thinking

Answer 97

ecologists have applied moral standards developed in relation to human beings to other species and organisms.

This has applied most obviously in relation to animal rights, but it can also be extended further in the idea of bio centric equality, which holds that all organisms and entities in the ecosphere are of equal moral worth. Animal rights – ecocentrism: Peter Singer.

He argued that an altruistic concern for the well-being of other species derived from the fact that they are capable of suffering (are sentient), animals like humans have an interest in avoiding physical pain (utilitarianism) thus he has condemned SPECIESISM.

This argument does not apply to non-sentient life eg trees rocks rivers and argument has special consideration with more developed and self aware animals eg apes.

Singer also argued for REDUCED moral consideration for human foetuses and mentally impaired people who have no capacity for suffering

Question 98

why have deep ecologists departed from conventional moral thinking?

Answer 98

deep ecologists have argued that nature has value in its own right, in which case nature is portrayed as an ethical community, within which human beings are nothing more than ‘plain citizens’ who have no more rights than any other member of the community.

Ecocentric ethical thinking - new metaphysics (way of thinking about the world).

This idea of value-in-nature can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a “thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community”, viewed as ethical community.

Deep Ecologists call for the adoption of an “ecological consciousness” which allows for no distinction between the self and the other, collapsing the distinction between humankind and nature

Question 99

why do social ecologists reject deep ecological theory

Answer 99

They argue that deep ecology ignores the radical social change that needs to accompany an ‘inner revolution’, but in turning its back on rational thought and embracing mysticism it succumbs to “vulgar Californian spiritualism” or “eco-la-la”.

Social ecologists are therefore overwhelmingly anthropocentric, arguing that true ecological change is only possible with a radical social change: the overthrowal of patriarchy, the state or capitalism.

Question 100

why do shallow ecologists reject deep ecological theory

Answer 100

arguing it is deeply morally and philosophically flawed.

Morally, deep ecology is misguided as nature cannot have ‘intrinsic’ value, as environmental ethics can never be non-anthropocentric: good and bad are only meaningful when applied to human beings.

Therefore, ecological issues must be approached from an anthropocentric stance, albeit an “enlightened” one.

Question 101

explain the radical new philosophy of deep ecology

Answer 101

deeper and more challenging philosophical approach that amounts to nothing less than a new metaphysics, a new way of thinking and understanding the world.

Its radical in a way and to a degree that does not apply elsewhere in ecological thought.

Deep ecology thus calls for the adoption of an ‘ecological consious’, a marked departure from the dominant Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm.

Deep ecologicsts criticise this as it is dualistic (humankind/nature, self/other) and so allows nature to be thought of as inert and valueless, a mere resource for satisfying human ends.

Deep ecologists thus advocate the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of narrow human ends.

Question 102

describe the shallow commitment to sustainability

Answer 102

A concern about future generations, which extends the notion of human interests to encompass the human species as a whole, making no difference between the present generation and future generations.

Actions should be judged morally in terms of their impact on those who have yet to be born as well as on the living, especially in view of the entitlement of future generations to enjoy living condition no less advantageous that those enjoyed by the living generation.

Question 103

how and why do deep ecologists reject the capitalist model

cultural basis for environmental degradation

Answer 103

Capitalism relentlessly searches for profit, despoiling the natural environment exponentially.

It views nature as nothing more than a commodity that has value only due to its exchange price when it is bought and sold.
This is because in a consumer society people are encouraged to place short-term economic considerations before longer-term environmental ones.
Hardin’s ‘land ethic’

Therefore, instead of the capitalist model, deep ecologists support a model of ‘zero growth’.

This would involve the construction of a ‘post-industrial age’ where people live in small, decentralised, rural communities and rely on craft skills.

In such a society widespread capitalist development would be forbidden, as the natural world is put before human advancement, reflected in a belief in bioregionalism and wilderness preservation.

Question 104

why is deep ecology at odds with the values of capitalism

Answer 104

materialism tends to undermine rather than enhance psychological and emotional well-being.

As modern advertising techniques tend to create ever greater material desires, they leave consumers in a constant state of dissatisfaction.

A rejection of the capitalist values leads deep ecologists to instead argue for the value of ‘being’. Instead of becoming acquiring ever more ‘things’ the individual derives satisfaction derived from experience and sharing, leading to personal growth and spiritual awareness.
‘Being’ is an attitude of mind that would transcend the self or ego, and recognise that each person is intrinsically linked to all other living things, and indeed to the universe.

This allows people to be ‘outwardly poor but inwardly rich’, concerned with morality, justice, fulfilment and focus on ‘post material issues’ such as world peace, racial harmony, ecology and animal rights.

Question 105

why are eco socialists at odds with the capitalist model

Answer 105

enemy of nature, whilst socialism is the friend.

Rudolph Bahro (1982), noted the natural world had been despoiled by industrialisation, as a consequence of capitalism’s relentless quest for profit.

Capitalism’s anti-ecological stance arises as private property encourages the belief that humans have dominated over nature.

The market economy thus ‘commodifies’ nature, turning it into something that only has exchange-value and so can be bought and sold; capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism leading to relentless growth.

Therefore, green-capitalism is a contradiction.

Question 106

why are eco-socialists at odds with the implications of capitalism

Answer 106

the poor suffer the most.

Capitalism produces dumping, pollution and other horrible environmental side effects – the poor are the powerless and so suffer.

Rich neighbourhoods are not polluted with landfill sits.
Environmental justice movement– Joel Kovel, argued that capitalism comes at the highest price for poor communities. They have taken action to prevent incinerators in poor neighbourhoods; campaigned against public housing being built on toxic waste dump

In the developing world this is even worse e.g. indigenous people displaced – disaster in Bohpal Indian when American owned chemical plant leaked and let toxic gases into the air supply.

Only way to liberate poor is overthrow capitalist movement.

Question 107

why are modernist ecologists not at odds with capitalism

Answer 107

Green capitalists argue the market is the only mechanism that encourages ecologically sound behaviour.

They argue there are market based solutions to environmental problems, as the market mechanism can and will respond to pressure from more ecologically aware consumers by forcing firms to produce environmentally sound goods and adopt green technologies.

This thinking relies on the idea of consumer sovereignty, as evidenced towards the present day trend of responsible consumption.

In addition, capitalist recognise that long term corporate profitability can only be achieved in a context of sustainable development. Capitalism thus has no interest in destroying the planet.

Question 108

why do eco conservatives not reject the values of capitalism

Answer 108

arguing it promotes drive and hard work, as opposed to laziness as the few depend on the many.

Question 109

why do eco-feminists support radical social change in order to achieve ecological goals

Answer 109

without the removal and overthrowal of patriarchy from society, environmental issues will always be disregarded by the ‘synthetic man’.

Men have a natural disposition to see themselves as superior and dominating over nature, whilst women are free of this patriarchal consciousness.

In this way, men are products of culture, whilst women are products of nature – the male world is synthetic, literally man made and based on human ingenuity rather than natural creativity.

Patriarchy therefore establishes the supremacy of human culture over nature, viewing the environment as nothing more than a force to be subdued, exploited or risen above.

Ecological destruction and gender inequality are part of the same process in which ‘cultured men’ rule over ‘natural women’.

Question 110

why and how do eco anarchists support radical social change in order to achieve ecological goals

Answer 110

state and authority power structures must be completely dismantled and abolished before environmental progress is possible.

Due to the plasticity of human nature, when held under authority humans are divorced from their true being and spirit – encouraged to be competitive, materialistic and corrupt

in an anarchist society humans would spontaneously obtain an understanding of organic relationships within ecology, as social institutions of such a society would reflect the natural balance of ecosystems (Bookchin) - only possible as human nature is malleable.

These communes would attempt to be self-sufficent, living close to nature, a “more intelligent and more loving use of the environment” – Bookchin.

primitivism, involving a return to non-civilized ways of life through deindustrialisation, abolition of the division of labour or specialization, and abandonment of large-scale organization technologies (John Zerzan).

A primitive society is without coercion or exploitation, creating natural, unregulated harmony.

Question 111

why do eco-socialists advocate radical social change to achieve ecological goals

Answer 111

arguing ecological goals can only be achieved after a socialist revolution

capitalism is the root cause of the environmental crisis.

Rudolph Baro proposed this analysis, noting the natural world had been despoiled by industrialisation, as a consequence of capitalism’s relentless quest for profit.

Capitalism’s anti-ecological stance arises as private property encourages the belief that humans have dominated over nature.

The market economy thus ‘commodifies’ nature, turning it into something that only has exchange-value and so can be bought and sold; capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism leading to relentless growth.

Question 112

why do deep ecologists not require radical social change to achieve ecological goals

Answer 112

They argue social change, radical or reformist cannot bring ecological consciousness into existence.

Instead, they support a change that is internal: a consciousness, going from ‘having to being’. Instead of becoming acquiring ever more ‘things’ the individual derives satisfaction derived from experience and sharing, leading to personal growth and spiritual awareness.

‘Being’ is an attitude of mind that would transcend the self or ego, and recognise that each person is intrinsically linked to all other living things, and indeed to the universe.

This allows people to be ‘outwardly poor but inwardly rich’, concerned with morality, justice, fulfilment and focus on ‘post material issues’ such as world peace, racial harmony, ecology and animal rights.

Question 113

why do shallow ecologists not support radical social change

Answer 113

reform: sustainability

vital tool for the continuation of the human species
needs of humans as a whole should be considered in cross generational justice
stewards preserving and protecting the environment so there is no decline in standard of living in future

Question 114

what do all ecologists agree on

Answer 114

real and present threat to the environment
imminent crisis

that we should change the way we interact in the world; reserving attitude to nature

increase population growth
declining resources
tropical rainforest decreased
reduced biodiversity
increased extinction
increased pollution