Ecology L1-L6 Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
Ernst Haeckel
A
coined the term “ecology”, the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the environment
2
Q
ecological system
A
ecological systems have biotic and abiotic components that interact
3
Q
homeostasis: physiology/morphology/behavior
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organisms maintain a set of conditions
4
Q
population
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group of individuals (2nd lowest group of ecological hierarchy)
5
Q
community
A
interaction of populations of individuals of different species (just the biotic part)
6
Q
ecosystem
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interaction of the abiotic and biotic parts of a community
landscape = sets of ecosystems together
7
Q
biosphere
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highest group of ecological hierarchy, contains all ecosystems
8
Q
climate (macro/micro)
A
largely dictated by where the sun hits the Earth
climate = average long-term conditions vs weather = short-term conditions
macroclimate: patterns on the global, regional, and landcsape level
microclimate: very fine, localized patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms that live in the microhabitat beneath a fallen log
9
Q
climate diagram
A
compares temperature and precipitation, constant red line implies little variation in climate
10
Q
monsoon
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typically in hot areas close to oceans, temp is high all year along and heavy rain occurs in a particular season
11
Q
seasonality
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climate changes throughout the year, predictable weather patterns
result of which hemisphere is getting greater sun exposure
12
Q
weather
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weather = short-term conditions vs climate = average long-term conditions
13
Q
angle of incidence (of the sun)
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direct overhead exposure more likely to occur at the Equator
14
Q
prevailing winds
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winds do not just move north and south because the Earth spins (faster at the equator than everywhere else)
prevailing winds drive oceanic currents
15
Q
gyre
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large patterns of ocean movements (circular motion driven by prevailing winds)
16
Q
currents
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California - along CA coast, cold water coming down from Alaska, pushes water off coast and causes upwelling
Gulf Stream - from Caribbean north along East Coast and to Europe, keeps E Coast warmer than it would be otherwise
Antarctic circumpolar - goes all the way around the Antarctic, emphasizes how much more water there is in S hemisphere than N hemisphere
17
Q
topography
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“lay of the land” - in CA, precipitation occurs on windward side of mountains, prevailing winds come from the West and create cold air
18
Q
windward/leeward
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windward side is closer to the ocean/coast, leeward side is over hills/mountains
19
Q
rain shadow
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occurs on leeward side of mountains
20
Q
dispersal
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organism dispersal can be predicted based on directions of prevailing winds, storms, and jet streams
definition is movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density
contributes greatly to the global distribution of organisms
21
Q
Mediterranean climate
A
we have one here in the Bay Area, the actual Mediterranean, and S Hemisphere
Northern and Southern Med climates have different patterns
22
Q
biome (von Humbdolt)
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von Humboldt - biogeographer who traveled extensively, saw characteristic sets of plants in different locations, which changed on mountains according to elevation
23
Q
convergent evolution
A
you know what this means dummy
24
Q
canopy
A
upper layer of forest
forest is based on vertical layer of vegetation
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disturbance
event such as a storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms from it and altering resource ability
disturbance rather than stability tends to be the rule
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tropical forest
rainfall is relatively constant, about 200-400 cm annually in tropical rainforests
tropical dry forest - precipitation is highly season
temperature is high year round with little seasonal variation
tropical forest vegetation is usually vertically layered with intense competition for light
highest biodiversity of any terrestrial biome
27
desert
occur in bands near 30 degrees north and south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents
temperature is variable seasonally and daily, can be very high or very low
dominated by low widely scattered vegetation, many plants do CAM photosynthesis
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savanna
occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions
dry season can last up to eight or nine months
warm year-round, but with more seasonal variation than tropical forests
scattered trees are thorny with small leaves; fires are common in the dry season
grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cover, most animals are large and plant-eating or predators
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chaparral
occurs in midlatitude coastal regions on several continents and is widely distributed
fall, winter, and spring are cool and summer is warm
dominated by
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chaparral
occurs in midlatitude coastal regions on several continents and is widely distributed
fall, winter, and spring are cool and summer is warm
dominated by shrubs and small trees, as well as many kinds of grasses and herbs
high diversity of small mammals
31
temperate grassland
eg plains and prairies of central North America
precipitation is often highly seasonal with relatively dry winters and wet summers; periodic drought is common
winters are generally cold while summers are hot
dominant plants are grasses and forbs, many grasses have adaptations to help survive drought
native mammals include large grazers like bison and wild horses
32
northern coniferous forest (taiga)
largest terrestrial biome on Earth, extending in a broad band across N America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra
precipitation varies
winters are usually cold and summer may be hot
dominated by cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce; conical shape of conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating and breaking their branches
lots of migratory birds
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temperate broadleaf forest
found mainly at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
precipitation highest in fall, sometimes winter snow
cold winters, hot and humid summers
mature TBF has distinct vertical layers, including a closed canopy
dominant plants are deciduous trees, which drop their leaves before winter when low temps would reduce photosynthesis
many mammals hibernate in winter
34
tundra
covers expansive areas of the Arctic and alpine tundra on very high mountaintops
low precipitation
winters are very cold, summers also cold
vegetation is mostly herbaceous - mosses, grasses, forbs; permanently frozen layer of soil called permafrost restricts the growth of plant roots
large grazing species and predators
35
oceans
make up the largest marine biome, covering about 75% of Earth's surface
water evaporated from the oceans provides most of the planet's rainfall
ocean temperatures have a major effect on global climate and wind patterns
(aquatic biomes are classified by marine or freshwater)
36
coral reefs
formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
shallow reef-building corals live in the photic zone of relatively stable tropical marine environments with high water clarity
require high oxygen levels and a solid substrate for attachment
corals are main organisms, but overall biodiversity is very high
37
intertidal zones
periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, wice daily on most marine shores
upper zones experience longer exposure to air and greater variations in temperature and salinity
oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and renewed with each turn of the tides
high diversity and biomass of attached marine algae
many heterotrophs
38
estuaries
transition area between river and sea; seawater flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during the falling tide
salinity varies within estuaries, from fresh water to seawater
nutrients from the river make estuaries very productive biomes
complex networks of tidal channels, islands, etc
saltmarsh grasses and algae
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rivers
most prominent physical characteristic is speed and volume of flow
river - water generally warmer and more turbid than streams
salt and nutrient content increases from oxygen-rich headwaters to the mouth
headwater streams may be rich in phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants, also a great diversity of fishes and invertebrates
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lakes
standing body of water covering large areas
oligotrophic - nutrient poor and generally oxygen rich
eutrophic - nutrient rich and often depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone, covered with ice in winter
littoral zone - shallow, well-lit waters close to shore
limnetic zone - far from shore, too deep to support rooted aquatic plants, but has phytoplankton and drifting heterotrophs
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zonation
many aquatic biomes are physically and chemically stratified
photic, aphotic make up pelagic
benthic
abyssal
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wetlands
habitat inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
both water and soils are periodically low in dissolved oxygen
basin wetlands - develop in shallow basins
riverine wetlands - developing along river and stream banks
water-saturated soils favor the growth of plants
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photic/aphotic
photic zone - upper part of pelagic zone, where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis
aphotic zone - lower zone where little light penetrates
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pelagic/benthic
pelagic zone - made up of photic and aphotic zone, above benthic and abyssal zone
benthic zone - bottom of all auatic zones, deep or shallow; made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments, occupied by communities of organisms collectively called the benthos
major source of food for benthic species is detritus
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abyssal
part of the ocean 2000-6000 m below the surface
| deep in the aphotic zone
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continental shelf
"surface" of land in aquatic biomes
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hydrothermal vents
dark, hot environments where food producers are chemoautotrophic prokaryotes
located on mid-ocean ridges, deep sea
marine benthic zone
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thermocline (thermal stratification)
narrow layer of abrupt temperature change that separates the uniformly warm upper layer of a lake/ocean from the more uniformly cold deeper waters
lakes tend to be especially layered except for turnover in temperate lakes
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turnover
temperate lakes undergo a semiannual mixing of their waters as a result of changing temperature profiles
sends oxygenated water from a lake's surface to the bottom and brings nutrient-rich water from the bottom to the surface in both spring and autumn
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BD model
```
B = births
D = deaths
```
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population
group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
members rely on the same resources, are influenced by similar environmental factors, and are likely to interact and breed with one another
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density
number of individuals per unit area or volume (eg number of oak trees per square km in the Minnesota county)
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dispersion (not dispersal)
pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
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mark-recapture method
used by ecologists to estimate the size of wildlife populations
capture a random sample of individuals, mark them, and then release them; wait for the marked individuals to mix back into the population and later sample a second set of individuals
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immigration/emigration
immigration - influx of new individuals from other areas
| emigration - movement of individuals out of a population and into other locations
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clumped/uniform or regular/random
clumped - most common pattern, in which individuals are aggregated in patches
uniform - evenly spaced pattern of dispersion, may result from direct interactions between individuals in the population
random - unpredictable spacing, position of each individual is independent of other individuals
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territoriality
defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals
often results in uniform patterns of dispersion
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s = sample
s = sample
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N = population size
N = population size
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demography
study of the vital statistics of populations and how they change over time
particular interest in birth rates and death rates
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life table
age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population
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generation time
amount of time taken for a cohort to go from birth to when all the individuals are dead
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sex ratio
ratio of male to female
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exponential growth (multiplicative)
describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment
you know what exponential growth is why'd you even make this dumbass flashcard
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linear growth (arithmetic)
a line
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BD model
```
B = births
D = deaths
Nt+1 = Nt + B - D
∆N/∆t = B - D
```
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population growth equations
```
b = per capita birth rate (fecundity)
m = per capita death rate (mortality)
r = per capita rate of increase
r = b - m r = 0, zero population growth (ZPG)
∆N/∆t = rN rinst = instantaneous, intrinsic or innate
dN/dt = rinstN, a maximum rate of increase
```
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metapopulation
number of local populations linked together, can be thought of as occupying discrete patches of suitable habitat in a sea of otherwise unsuitable habitat
underscores significance of immigration and emigration
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logistic growth (sigmoid, S-shape)
per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity
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life history
entails 3 main variables:
when reproduction begins (the age at first reproduction or at first maturity)
how often the organism reproduces
how many offspring are produced per reproductive episode
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semelparity
"one-shot" pattern of big bang reproduction - reproductive age is young, have all offspring at once and then die
examples: coho salmon, agave tree
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iteroparity
repeated reproduction
| eg female loggerheads
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age structure/pyramid
age structure is the relative number of individuals of each age in the population - diagram of this creates the pyramids we saw in human geo
pyramid shape depends on reproductive rate, infant mortality, etc.
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life expectancy
how long life is expected to last this is dumb
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principle of allocation: life history trade-offs, cost of reproduction, etc.
trade-off between reproduction and survival
| extra parental investment, like in primates, greatly increases chances of survival
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semelparity
"one-shot" pattern of big bang reproduction - reproductive age is young, have all offspring at once and then die
examples: coho salmon, agave tree
favored when survival rate of offspring is low, typically in highly variable or unpredictable environments
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iteroparity
repeated reproduction
eg female loggerhead turtles produce four times in a year
organisms tend to produce relatively few but large offspring each time they reproduce, and they provide for the offspring better
favored in more dependable environments, where adults are more likely to survive to breed again and where competition for resources may be intense
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reproductive table
fertility schedule - age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population
constructed by measuring the reproductive output of a cohort from birth until death
tallies the number of female offspring produced by each age-group for sexual species
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cohort
randomly selected group of individuals of the same age
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survivorship curve (3 types)
Type I - flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, and then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age groups (examples are many large mammals including humans) - looks like an L which is what I'll be taking on this midterm
Type II -
81
survivorship curve (3 types)
Type I - flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, and then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age groups (examples are many large mammals including humans) - inverted L, opposite of type III
Type II - intermediate, with constant death rate over the organism's life span (occurs in squirrels, rodents, plants, etc.) looks like a downward slope like my GPA
Type III - looks like an L which is what I'll be taking on this midterm, drops sharply at the start reflecting very high death rates for those few individuals that survive the early period of die-off
82
resources
why is this a card get your life together
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limit to population growth (Malthus)
Thomas Malthus said humans would eventually outstrip resources and reach our carrying capacity
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K-selected
density-dependent selection
selection for traits that are sensitive to population density and are favored at high densities
said to operate in populations living at a density near the limit imposed by their resources (the carrying capacity) when competition among individuals is stronger
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resources 8===D
why is this a card get your life together 8===O
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r-selected
density-independent selection
| selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments (low densities)
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K-selected
density-dependent selection
selection for traits that are sensitive to population density and are favored at high densities
said to operate in populations living at a density near the limit imposed by their resources (the carrying capacity) when competition among individuals is stronger
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A-----SELECTED
Adele approved. No one except Adele has ever made this list. Sad.
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r-selected
density-independent selection
selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments (low densities)
said to maximize r, the per capita rate of increase and occurs in environments in which population densities are well such conditions are often found in disturbed habitats
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density dependent
birth rate or death rate does not change with population density
examples - mortality of grass due to physical factors that kill same proportion of a local population regardless of density, ilke drought stress
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density independent
death rate that increases with population density or a birth rate that falls with rising density
eg scarcity of water or nutrients with more organisms
key factors regarding birth rate are density dependent, while death rate is largely regulated by density-dependent factors
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equilibrium, equilibrium density
combination of density-dependent and density-independent factors can stop population growth, resulting in equilibrium population density
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Allee effect
individuals may have a more difficult time surviving or reproducing if the population size is too small
for example, a single plant may be damaged by excessive wind if it is standing alone, but it would be protected by a clump of individuals
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minimum viable population
minimal population size at which a species is able to sustain its numbers
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effective population size
total population size may be misleading because only certain members of the population breed successfully and pass on traits
effective population size is based on the breeding potential of the population, incorporates sex ratio
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ecological footprint
summarizes aggregate land and water area required by each person, area, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb all the waste it generates
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ecological footprint
summarizes aggregate land and water area required by each person, area, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb all the waste it generates
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community
group of populations of different species living close enough to interact
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interspecific interactions
include competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis, and facilitation
interactions with other individuals of the other species in the community
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consumer-resource interactions
predation -
herbivory -
parasitism -
pathogen interactions -
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interspecific competition
a -/- interaction that occurs when individuals of different species compete for a resource that limits their growth and survival
102
ecological niche
sum of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment
103
competitive exclusion (Gause)
two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist permanently in the same place; in the absence of disturbance, one species will use the resources more efficiently and reproduce more rapidly than the other
even a slight reproductive advantage will eventually lead to local elimination of the inferior competitor
Gause - noted this phenomenon in paramecium experiment
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resource partitioning
differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist in a community
eg using different resources or using the same resources at different times of day or the year
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consumer-resource interactions
predation - +/- in which one species kills and eats the other
herbivory - +/- interaction in which an organism eats parts of a plant or alga
parasitism - +/- in which one organism derives its nourishment from another organism, which is harmed in the process
pathogen interactions - +/- probably
106
mutualism
(+/+) - interspecific interaction that benefits both species
eg nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the root nodules of legumes, nutrient exchange between fungi and plant roots
obligate mutualism - one species cannot survive on its own
facultative mutualism - both species can survive on their own
107
commensalism
(+/0) - interaction between species that benefits one of the species but neither harms nor helps the other
108
facilitation
species can have positive effects on the survival and reproduction of other species without necessarily living in the direct and intimate contact of a symbiosis
particularly common in plant ecology
109
symbiosis
when individuals of 2 or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another - all such interactions, whether they are harmful or not
110
limiting resource
resource that limits why do you do this
111
fundamental niche
niche potentially occupied by a species identified by testing the range of conditions in which a species grows and reproduces in the absence of competitors
112
realized niche
portion of the fundamental niche that an organism actually occupies
