ecology (unit 2) Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
what is ecology?
A
the study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment
2
Q
what two factors do you look at in ecology?
A
distribution and abundance
3
Q
what is a terrestrial biome?
A
a major ecosystem type that has one dominant type of vegetation
4
Q
describe the northern coniferous biome?
A
a terrestrial biome filled with evergreen needles located in upper north America and Asia/Europe
5
Q
describe the temperate broadleaf biome?
A
a terrestrial biome filled with deciduous broadleaves with a wet climate located between the polar region and tropical region
6
Q
describe the tropical forest biome?
A
terrestrial with evergreen broadleaves in a hot and wet climate in the tropics
7
Q
describe the temperate grassland biome?
A
biome in dry climate located in north america and easter europe
8
Q
describe the savanna biome?
A
made up of grasses with some trees in a hot climate, located mostly in africa, with some in australia, south america, and india
9
Q
what are the three types of biomes?
A
forest biomes, grass biomes, and dry biomes
10
Q
what are the forest biomes?
A
northern coniferous, temperate broadleaf, and tropical forest
11
Q
what are the grass biomes?
A
temperate grasslands and savanna
12
Q
what are the dry biomes?
A
desert and tundra
13
Q
what are the terrestrial biomes?
A
northern coniferous, temperate broadleaf, tropical forest, and tundra
14
Q
what affects distribution?
A
latitude, temperate, precipitation, and disturbance
15
Q
what is the definition of distrubance?
A
an event that removes individuals from a population
16
Q
what limits the change of distriubtions?
A
dispersal (the organism doesn’t get there), abiotic factors, or biotic factors
17
Q
what are some examples of abiotic factors?
A
temperature, moisture, salinity, oxygen
18
Q
what are some examples of biotic factors?
A
resources, predation, competition, disease
19
Q
explain how coyote populations grew (and distribution changed) in the 90s?
A
wolfs became extinct in 1990, which made expansion into NS much easier for coyotes, and agriculture led to forest removal, which made rodents and small prey more abundant
20
Q
what is the exponential growth model?
A
dN/dt = rN
where:
dN/dt = population change
r = growth rate
N = population size
21
Q
how do you calculate population growth rate?
A
r = b - d + i - e
where:
b = birth date
d = death rate
i = immigration rate
e = emigration rate
22
Q
explain what happened to the desert locusts (from lesson one)?
A
- population changes quite often, possibly because of rainfall
- more food leads to more locusts, which leads to clumping which leads to crowding which leads to gregarization (high density) which gives the locusts strong colours, swarm flying during daytime (opposed to flying alone at night) this is because mechanical stimulation creates hormone secretion (serotonin) creating a behavioural change in hours and a colour change in months
23
Q
explain the otters example of population density?
A
- otters have hisotrically large populations, but have become small and disjointed due to the fur trade (1700s to 1911) leaving 1000/2000 otters left
- went extinct (last otter was on the BC coast in 1929, despite a harvest moratorium to attempt to help the population)
- otters were relocated to Amchitka island in the 50s (which was turned into a wildlife reserve after WW2), but all were killed bu weapons tests in the late 60s/early 70s.
- 89 otters were relocated to van island between 1977 and 1995, causing exponential growth (r = 0.19)
- growth slowed after 1995 (r = 0.08) and stabilized/reached max in 2008-2013 (r = 0.05) with 5200 otters
24
Q
what is carrying capacity (k)?
A
the max population an environment can support
25
what is density dependant/independent?
birth rate is density indepdent
death rate is density dependant
26
what is equilibrium density?
(if b = d) is if the regulated population is at equilibrium and has more than one density-dependent rate
27
what is the logistical growth model?
dN/dt = rN(K-N)/K
when N is the growth rate with unlimited resources
28
what is the relationships between N and K in the logistical growth model?
when N is small, population growth is close to exponential
when N = K population growth is 0
when N > K population growth is negative
29
what are the reproductive trade-offs?
r-strategy maximizes number of offspring (doesn't take care of them very well)
K-strategy maximizes offspring survival (less number of offspring)
30
in what environments/species does the r-strategy work the best?
open/distrubed, temporary, and unprediactable enviornemnts
invading/colonizing species
31
in what environments/species does K-strategy work the best?
competitive but predictable environments, and crowded/permanent environments
**high survival when young, lower as adults
32
what are the shapes of age pyramids?
spindle-shaped - boomer bulge and echo (canada)
concave-shaped - high birth rate and high death rate (niger)
convex shape - declining birth rate and low death rate (India)
33
explain TFR:
total fertility rate, or the average number of children per woman
34
what is the replacement TFR?
2.1 (zero population growth - births exactly replace death)
35
what are the main features of aquatic biomes?
they vary in salinity, range from freshwater to estuaries to marine
36
what does depth affect in aquatic biomes?
light, temperature, places to attach, and pressure
37
what is stratification?
the formation of zones that form a thermocline (zone of rapid temp change)
38
what are the two zones of lake stratification?
the photic zone (warm, oxygen rich, nutrient poor) and the bottom zone (cool, oxygen poor, nutrient rich)
39
when do the stratification zones of lakes mix?
during turnover seasons (spring and fall)
40
what are the layers of ocean stratifcation?
eutrophic (high nutrients and productivity) and oligotrophic (low nutrients and productivity)
41
what are some examples of shallow water marine biomes?
kelp forests, coral reefs, and intertidal biomes
42
what are the main types of species interactions?
competition (loss for both), mutualism (gain for both), parasitism (gain/loss) or commensalism (gain/neutral)
*gain/loss is on growth rates
43
what is the ecosystem of the rocky intertidal like?
- the rocky intertidal has four zones that have typical/common organisms
- splash zone with periwinkle snail
- high intertidal with barnacles
- mid intertidal with mussels
- low intertidal with sea stars
44
explain the competition in the rocky intertidal?
barnacles and algae are competing for space (interspecific comp)
there was a experiment in Scotland that showed that the small (chthamalus) and large (balanus) barnacles don't overlap
realized that balanus excludes chthamalus from lower shore and that they cannot live on upper shore because of desiccation (physical barrier)
and that they live on different niches
45
what are the different types of niches?
realized niche is observed in nature
fundamental nice is theoretical good conditions for the species
46
what are the main features of coral reefs?
they have high diversity (corals, fish, invertebrates) and exist in shallow water between 18 to 30 degrees (tropics and subtropics)
47
explain the mutualism in the coral reefs?
coral polyps are small nutrient poor colony animals that live in abundant light, zooxanthellae (polysynthetic eukaryotes) live symbiotically in coral polyps by producing carbs (and giving up 90% to the polyps) and receiving safety and nutrients (CO2 and N) for photosynthesis (mutualism)
48
explain the competition in the coral reefs?
coral cover is being replaced by macroalgae (50% coral cover in the Caribbean in the 1970s, which was reduced to 10% in the 2000s)
this was caused by disturbance (increased coral death) and settlement (more macroalgae) - so depends on settlement rate and growth rate) and is due to a decline in large herbivorous fish (parrotfish populations were replaced by sea urchin) that ate macroalgae, a massive die-off of diadema (in 1983) and warm temps causing coral bleaching and sewage/agriculture run-off causing high nutrient leaks which killed off the coral
49
what are trophic interactions?
species interactions that are related to food (and are shown on food webs)
50
what are the important species in food webs?
those that have high biomass - dominant species
those that alter the environment - ecosystem engineers
those that are important but have low biomass/abundance - keystone species
51
what are trophic cascades?
top -> down control causing cascades (more predators -> less herbivores -> more plants)
52
what is an example of cascades (sea otters)?
otters returned to BC which caused less sea urchins and starfish, which caused more kelp (which affects productivity, physical structure, and richness of fish species) this is because kelp is harmed by urchin barrens (caused by overfishing wolfish cod in Alaska in the 90s)
53
what is an example of a regime shift?
urchin barrens and kelp beds to alternate (because of urchin disease) - this
54
what is lyme disease caused by?
spirochaete bacteria
55
what are the symptoms of lyme disease?
fever, joint pain, arthritis, and a bulls-eye rash
56
how is lyme disease communicated?
indirectly through pathogens infecting vectors (black legged (deer) ticks) which then infect a victim
57
what are the recent changes in lyme disease?
has been around for over 60,000 years, and on ticks for over 10,000, but cases and spread are increasing rapidly
58
what is the history of the prevalence of lyme disease?
it was common pre -1700s but declined in 1800s due to deforestation and agriculture, but increased again in the 1900s when the forests recovered
in connecticut there were 12 deer in 1896 and over 150,000 now
in mohegan island (maine) there are now no deer and no lyme disease
therefore: small mammals cause more ticks (migratory birds spread lyme - first found in NS on a bird in 1999)
climate change benefits also benefits ticks and lyme
59
what are ecosystems comprised of?
living (primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers) and dead organisms (detritus) as well as the physical environment
60
what are energy flows?
ecosystem energetics - primary producers produce radiant energy and store chemical energy in organic bonds)
61
how are energy flows compared and quantified?
amount of energy
efficiency of energy capture
transfer rates
rates of energy lost
62
how does respiration incorporate into energy flow?
produces heat energy from primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers
63
how does death incorporate into energy flow?
produces detritus from primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers
64
how does consumption incorporate into energy flow?
moves energy from primary producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers and from detritus to decomposers to secondary consumers
65
how does photosynthesis incorporate into energy flow?
transfers energy from radiant energy to primary producers
66
how do we compare and quantify nutrient flows?
nutrient stores in physical environment
efficiency of nutrient uptake
transfer rates
retention of nutrients
67
what are nutrient flows?
plants converting CO2 to OrgC, and decomposers obtaining chemical energy from detritus and returning it to the natural environment
68
how does carbon incorporate into nutrient flow?
goes from detritus to primary producers, and goes to the environment from decomposers, secondary consumers, and primary consumers
69
how does OrgC incorporate into nutrient flow?
goes from primary producers to primary consumers and detritus, goes from primary consumers to detritus and secondary consumers, goes from secondary consumers to detritus, and goes from decomposers to detritus and secondary consumers, and from detritus to decomposers
70
how is ecosystem health measured?
how well it produces energy and nutrients, three measures:
rate of primary production (energy capture, nutrient uptake, death rates, or plant respiration)
rate of secondary production (energy capture, nutrient uptake, death rates, or plant respiration)
rate of decomposition
71
how does ecosystem health affect us?
food/agriculture
natural ecosystems
understanding how our change affects it
72
how do we measure primary production?
NPP = net primary production = rate that plant biomass increases in an ecosystem
73
how is NPP calculated?
NPP = GPP - Ra
GPP = gross primary production
Ra = autotrophic respiration
or: light energy captured by plants - energy lost to plant respiration
74
how do we measure ecosystem production?
NEP = net ecosystem production = energy per unit time (in all ecosystem components)
75
how is NEP calculated?
NEP = GPP - Rt
GPP = gross primary production
Rt = heat/biomass lost from all components
76
what does NEP tell us?
if it is positive - it absorbs more CO2 than released and stops climate change :)
if it is negative - it releases more CO2 than it absorbs and contributes to climate change :(
77
what limits NEP in terrestrial biomes?
temperature
light
latitude and elevation
moisture
nitrogen levels (limiting nutrient)
78
what are the steps of the (bacteria driven) nitrogen cycle?
N-fixation (N2 -> NH4+)
nitrification (NH4+ -> NO3-)
denitrification (NO3- -> N2)
79
what are the steps of the plant-driven part of the nitrogen cycle?
decomposition (organic N -> NH4+)
assimilation (NH4+ and NO3- -> organic N)
80
why is the nitrogen cycle important?
plants cannot use N2 so are dependent on nitrogen fixation
81
how do humans influence the nitrogen cycle?
humans fix 220 tgN/year, while 85 tgN/year are organically fixed
82
how do humans fix nitrogen?
growing legumes (peas, beans, soybeans) - 60 tgN/year
manufacturing fertilizer (convert N2 to Nh4+ or No3-) - 135 tgN/year
83
why is excessive N-fixation harmful?
causes high No3- levels in the soil, which causes toxicity, aquatic pollution, and loss of nutrients (calcium) from the soil
fertilizers cause eutrophication (overproduction of primary producers
84
what is an example of problems caused by overuse of fertilizer?
in the gulf of mexico, eutrophication caused decomposition of algae which caused O2 depletion which caused a dead zone (low O2) where fish and other organisms die off)
85
what are the main types of social behavior?
cooperative (mutual benefits like defense hunting)
selfish (benefit for actor and cost for recipient like territoriality)
spiteful (mutual cost like surplus killing
altruistic (cost for actor and benefit for recipient like alarm calls that warn others but increase risk to self (pika))
86
what is inclusive fitness?
looking at the total effect on the number of genes passed on
87
what is kin selection?
will an act enhance relatives' reproductive success
88
what is Hamilton's rule?
natural selection favours an act if C
89
how do you calculate relatedness?
(1/2)^number of links (mother/daughter/siblings = 1 link, grandmother/granddaughter = 2 links)
90
what are the costs/benefits to living in groups?
benefits are cooperative feeding and defenses of groups
costs are disease/parasite transmission and restricted reproduction
91
what is the group structure of wolves?
cooperative breeding/restricted reproduction - only some breed, and others help
helpers because kin selection (pups survive better in packs with helpers) AND promotes individual fitness (helpers get stronger and gain experience, are more likely to survive when they leave, and have a higher lifetime reproduction so is a win-win
92
what are two examples of cooperative breeding species?
florida scrub jay and wolves
93
what is the group structure of florida scrub jays?
live in territories in family groups in patchy habitats, there is a breeding pair and mature young that stay to feed younger siblings, defend territory, and warn of predators
stay to help since scrub oak habitat is very limited and they will inherit the territory if the father dies or if it is partitioned (only for males) -win/win
94
what are eusocial societies?
groups that divide into reproductive and non-reproductive groups
95
what are some examples of eusocial society?
ants, wasps, termites, and bees
96
what is the group structure of army ants?
eusocial - the queen and males reproduce and the workers (sterile females) defend, forage, and care for young - there is no benefit to individual reproductive fitness, but is a benefit to kin selection
97
what is the group structure of naked mole rats?
eusocial society in arid habitats in the horn of africa; they life in underground burrow colonies
male and female workers dig tunnels and gather food and nest materials for the young. the soldiers defend burrow
the queen suppresses reproduction in the colony (though behaviors and chemicals)
they stay in group because the environment is harsh and food is scarce and they cant survive in small groups
98
what are the types of mating systems?
monogamous, polygamous, and promiscuous
99
what is an example of a species that are monogamous?
prairie vole
100
what are examples of the two types of polygamous species?
elk are polygynous
spotted sandpiper are polyandrous
101
what is an example of a promiscuous species?
australian magpie
102
explain the mating system of the spotted sandpipers?
females arrive at breeding grounds and compete for males, lay eggs and then desert the nest to produce eggs with other males
103
what is conservation ecology?
applying ecological theory to aid in biodiversity conservation
104
what is the IUCN red list?
a list of categories that describe abundance of species created by the international union for the conservation of nature
105
what are the categories in the IUCN red list?
extinct
extinct in the wild
critically endangered *
endangered *
vulnerable *
least concern
data deficient
not evaluated
* = at risk of extinction
106
what is an example of a EN animal?
shortfin mako are threatened by overfishing, both as a target and bycatch species
sea otters have a decreasing global population
107
what is an example of a CE animal?
sumatran rhinoceros have 30 mature individuals left, they are threatened by human disturbance and poaching
108
what is COSEWIC?
committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada -asses species at risk based on population size, recent change, and threats to population/habitat
109
what are the COSEWIC categories with examples?
extinct - great auk
extirpated (gone in canada) - atlantic walrus
endangered - loggerhead sea turle
threatened - rufa red knot
specail concern (current threats) - grizzly bear
110
what are COSEWIC's receomendations?
listing species at risk and an intersection of science and policy
an initial response withing 90 days and a final decision withing 9 about SARA
111
what is SARA?
species at risk act (in federal legislation since 2003) to prevent extinctions of wildlife in canada and plan for recovery of endangered or threatened species
112
what are provisioning services?
the services that supply the goods like foods and water and timber and fibre
examples are foods, new medicines and pharmaceutical compounds, and clean air and water
113
what are regulating services?
the services that govern climate and rainfall, waste, and the spread of disease
examples are erosion control and coastal protection, climate regulation, pollination
114
what are cultural services?
the services that cover the beauty, inspiration, and recreation that contribute to our spiritual welfare
examples are recreation and mental health, spiritual and aesthetic, and tourism
115
what are supporting services?
services that include soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling, which underpin growth and production
examples are biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and primary productivity
116
what are some threats to biodiversity?
habitat loss
overharvesting
introduced species pollution
climate change
overpopulation
these lower carrying capacity and growth rate
117
what populations are more likely to go extinct?
smaller populations - because stochasticity and genetic problems that can arise in small populations (inbreeding (deleterious alleles) and loss of genetic variability)
118
what is stochastic events?
the variation of population size from year to year, this can cause small populations to extinct if there is a "bad year"
119
what is MVP?
minimum viable population - the smallest a population can be while still being likely to persist into the future (>95% chance of surviving 100 years into the future)
120
explain the grizzly bear population sizes example?
in yellowstone park, the MVP would need to be 100 bears, current population is 700 bears. Ne is 300-400 grizzlies
121
what is effective population size?
essentially the number of breeding individuals, depends on mating system and sex ratio
122
what is abiotic vs biotic?
biotic components are living, abiotic are non-living
123
what is a microclimate?
a small climate of a restricted area (usually different from the surrounding climate)
124
what is gregarization?
the transformation of solitary insects into a swarm due to rapid population growth
125
what are vital rates?
the speed that vital statistics (ex: number of births, deaths, etc) change within a population
126
what is semelparity?
organisms that die after they reproduce once
127
what is iteroparity?
organisms that live to reproduce multiple times
128
what is sigmoid?
a growth model that is a function with one inflection point and has a positive derivate
129
what is dessication?
a state of extreme dryness (drying out a living organism)
130
what is an estuary?
a partially enclosed coastal body of water where fresh water from streams mixes with salt water from the ocean
131
what is the littoral zone?
grassy marshy perimeter along banks of a waterway
132
what is the limnetic zone?
open and well-lit freestanding body of water (lake or pond)
133
what is the neritic zone?
the water column over the continental shelf
134
what is the photic zone?
the uppermost layer of water that receives sunlight and allows phytoplankton to perform photosynthesis
135
what is the aphotic zone?
portion of water that receives little to no sunlight
136
what is the benthic zone?
lowest ecological zone in a water body, usually involves the sediments at the seafloor
137
what is the pelagic zone?
water column of the open ocean (between the bottom and surface)
138
what is a thermocline?
a zone of rapid temperature change
139
what are krill?
crustaceans found in open oceans
140
what are phyoplankton?
microalgae that need sunglight
141
what are cyanobacteria?
blue-green algae found is water (need sunlight)
142
what is a biogeochemical?
something that works in a cycle to transfer chemical elements and substances between living systems and the environment
143
what is altruism?
behavior that benefits another at the organism's own expense
144
what is promiscuous mating?
mating with multiple partners without any quality selectiveness
145
what is the IUCN?
international union for conservation of nature
146
what is stochasticity?
unpredictable fluctuation in environmental conditions
