economics 2- market structures Flashcards
(227 cards)
1
Q
describe these markets structures
A
2
Q
What are some characteristics of a perfect competition
A
-all firms sell same products= the goods firms produce are perfect substitutes for each other. Also means firms can’t compete in price as all the same good
-suppliers/ customers perfectly informed about price/profits
-free entry and exit only in long run/ in short run number firms is fixed none can enter and exit
3
Q
Oat, wheat and milk markets would be examples of perfect comp/ monopolistic/ oligopoly/monopoly
A
perfect comp- are all selling the same product (homogenous products in perfect comp)
4
Q
In perfect comp, firms are price takers; what does this mean
A
cannot influence the price/ takes price from market
5
Q
What markert structure do these demand curves represent; perfect comp/ monopolistic/ oligopoly/monopoly
A
perfect comp. The flat line is price the market set
6
Q
What is a maximum profit
A
where difference between total revenue and total cost is the biggest
When a firms MC=MR
7
Q
What are 2 options to do if you are making a loss in the short run
A
- cannot leave market in SR
-cease production- you make a loss of your fixed costs every day
-contine is loss minimising if making some contribution towards fixed costs and therefore optimal strategy
8
Q
What happens if businesses are making abnormal profit in the short run
A
encourages buisneses to enter market in the long run
9
Q
What is q*
A
profit maximising level of production
10
Q
Where is the firm making abnormal profit
A
11
Q
What is the point where the MC curve crosses the demand curve
A
making no economic profit, but making accounting profit; at this point average rev= av cost. So the firm is making normal profit
12
Q
What is abnormal profit
A
this area is the difference between average revenue and average costs, multiplied by units sold
13
Q
Dave is making a loss. What should he do in the in the short run
A
Stay open- he is covering his variable costs and making some contribution towards his fixed costs. If he closed, he would have a loss of £2000 per week. if revenue falls below £4000 per week it is not worth staying open
14
Q
Abnormal profit can be competed away. In this diagram a firm is making abnormal profit, which encourages other firms to join in the long term. How does this effect the diagram and where do we draw a new supply curve
A
- Initial equilibrium at P1 and Q1; firm is price taker so takes market price as its own
- New entering businesses increase industry supply; shifts supply curve to right
- surplus of the good
- price starts to fall to P2, which increases demand (lower price goods have higher demand) and so new equil at P2,Q2
- firms now make normal profit
15
Q
You can tell how much abnormal profit the firms were making before by comparing it to the profit firms make now after more businesses enter. Where is the abnormal profit area
A
16
Q
On the second diagram where are firms making normal profits
A
-When demand curve touches bottom of ATC
-this point is minimum amount firm needs to be making to prevent them from deciding they need to leave the industry in long term
17
Q
Why is there no AVC curve on long run graphs (average variable costs)
A
in long run don’t distinguish between variable costs and fixed costs because all costs are now variable [no fixed factors]
18
Q
define productive efficiency
A
production occurs at bottom of AC curve. Goods are produced in less costly way (first produce when average cost is at minimum)
19
Q
define allocative efficiency
A
Price= MC. Resources are allocated to produce the goods society wants; supply=demand
20
Q
What are characteristics of a monopoly
A
21
Q
are monopolies price makers/takers
A
price makers
22
Q
What are some examples of monopolies
A
public utilities/ microsoft/ some airway companies
23
Q
What is tacit collusion
A
collusion between competitors, which do not explicitly exchange information and achieving an agreement about coordination of conduct.
24
Q
what is overt collusion
A
formal and explicit co-operation and agreements take place between rival firms
25
What is Concoius parallism
dominant firm sets prices and other firms follow
26
When goods have substitutes will their demand curve be elastic or inelastic
elastic, changes in price will effect quantitiy demanded as consumers will buy substitute
27
Why are monopoly curves inelastic
monopolies have **no close substitutes**; customers have no alternative
28
What is a natural monopoly
monopoly in an industry where it is most efficient for production to be done by a single firm (free-market competition would be economically inefficient)
29
Why does a monopoly have a downwards sloping AC curve
the entire scale of production **has economies of scale at all levels out output**. As the quantities supplied gets bigger, the average costs decrease. For context, AC is usually U shaped because of DMR
30
Between a and b, what is the relationship between average costs and average revenue
AR is bigger than AC, so a single firm is making abnormal profit
31
Why does D1 (lowest demand curve) not ever make a profit
AC>AR at all levels of output; average cost is always bigger than average revenue being brought in
32
Why is there no long run and short run in a monopoly
difference between LR and SR is entry+exit. There is only 1 firm in a monopoly and barriers to stop entry and exit
33
true/false; In a monopoly the firms demand curve also equals the industries demand curve
true- as only 1 firm in the market
34
Why is a monopoly not allocatively efficient or productively efficient
Because abnormal profit cannot be competed away
35
What would a monopolies MR (marginal revenue) curve look like if this was its demand curve (revenue gained by producing one additional unit of a product or service)
MR curve is a straight line that falls at twice the rate of the demand curve
36
This graph compares perfect competition to a monopoly. The MR line only applies to monopoly. Why is the perfect comp equilibrium P and Q where it is
perfect comp equilibrium when supply=demand
37
This graph compares perfect competition to a monopoly. The MR line only applies to monopoly. Why is the monopoly not allocatively efficient
price is set above MC. allocative efficiency is price=MC.
38
Why are monopolies not productively efficient
1.productive efficiency= production occurs at bottom of AC curve. No competition means monopolies have no incentive to produce at the bottom of their AC curve
2. leads to excess capacity- if **not producing at bottom AC curve**- the firms **could have produced more of the good** and sold it in the markert
39
What is a consumer surplus
diff between total amount consumers are willing to pay vs what they actually pay
40
What is producer surplus
diff between what producers are able to produce/supply vs the price they actually receive
41
What is total welfare
sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus (maximised in perfect comp)
42
What is predatory pricing
trying to become a monopoly- one firm **dramatically reduces prices** intending to drive competitors out of the market
43
What are some barriers to going into a monopoly industry
large barriers such as enormous fixed costs (water supply)
44
Equation for average cost
TC/Q
45
Why is adding another company to a monopoly allocatively inefficient (context of water supplier)
each water company will not share resources and each will have to build their own infastructure/pipes so massive fixed costs, while also average cost doubling TC/Q because customers are shared/ halved so Q decreases
46
Why can consumer welfare be limited in a monopoly
Consumers have to **pay more and buy less of the product**. Monopolies will charge higher price and restrict output in comparison to perfect comp
46
Why would governments want to regulate monopolies
1.promote overall customer welfare
2. To avoid deadweight loss
3. Monopolies are allocatively inefficient
47
Which part of the curve is consumer surplus (diff between total amount consumers are willing to pay vs what they actually pay)
A+B+ triangle above (amount you were willing to pay but you get a lower price for)
48
Which part of the diagram is producer surplus (diff between what producers are able to produce/supply vs the price they actually receive)
49
Reasons against monopolies/ how are monopolies not allocative efficient or productive efficient
1. not allocative efficient (don't produce at bottom of ATC curve)
2. can set market prices higher than in a competitive market- so costumers are losing out.
3. productive inefficiency- excess capacity exists/ do not produce at bottom of AC curves so firms could have produced more of the good and sold it in the market
50
What is a benefit to a monopoly
could reinvest abnormal profits into infrastructure/ into innovation
-innovation could widen consumer choice and aid economic growth
-innovation in new production processes could lead to lower average costs of production
51
Why might businesses collude
They are all able to set higher prices to make more profits/ In game theory the **collusive outcome is the best outcome** (if no cheating then no hash equilibrium)
52
What sanctions would you give businesses that have colluded
1. a fine that was bigger than the profits made otherwise that would just encourage them to collude again
2. governments strictly monitor the markets
53
What type of economy could encourage collusion
declining economy/ More and more industries are oligopoly structures- companies are encouraged to cooperate in economic downturn so they can stay afloat
54
What is the most likely outcome of a one shot of prisoners dilemma
cheat
55
What are the characteristics of an oligopoly
a few firms that share a large portion of
56
a perfect competition operates at supply=demand, which is also
MC= price
57
How do governments promote competition and try to reduce the power or monopolies
1. active bodies that seek out abuses of monopoly power
2. look for collusion/ preditory pricing
3. fines
58
What is monopolistic competition
everything same as perfect comp, except firms produce different products not the same
59
What is an oligopoly
few firms share large proportion of the market
60
What is a duopoly
2 firms control the whole market (eg. airbus and Boeing)
61
What is the idea of mutual interdependence
the actions of a firm has significant effect on its rivals (if apple launches a massive advertising campaign, Samsung could loose out)
62
Oligopolists can either compete or collude. What are these two things
compete- to gain larger market share of industry profits
collude (act like monopoly) to jointly maximise industry profits
63
What does the kinked demand curve show about an oligopoly
Above P*, will loose significant customers because other firms will not have followed suit
Below P*- competitors match low price and so company will not gain significant amount of customers
64
Why does the MR curve look this way
MR falls at twice the rate of a demand curve. So takes the gradient of each line and makes it fall twice as fast
65
What is true of the product price between A and B
price is constant
66
What are the problems with kinked demand (go against the theory)
-price stability may be due to other factors
-lacks empirical observation
-does not explain how P* came to the market price
-explains only price stability due to economic downturn
67
What does cournot oligopoly assume (2)
1. 2 firms selling homogenous products
2. equal marginal costs of production
68
Why is MC=0
MC=the cost added by producing one additional unit of a product or service.
If the guy is just there filling up bottles it costs nothing to fill up an extra bottle
69
If a second person discovers another stream and starts doing the same, how does the second person know how much to produce
depends upon how much **he thinks** seller 1 will produce/ assuming seller 1 will not change its output
70
What is the cournot conjecture and a residual demand curve (subject=oligopoly)
71
Describe the customers preferences on the residual demand stretch
customers who are not willing to pay P1A, and are available for seller 2 to use
72
(spring water trail example) This is seller 1 in a monopoly; How should seller 2 decide the level of output to sell
Should produce Q2 units of output because **Profit is at maximum when MC=MR**
-new MR curve drawn which falls at twice the rate of the demand curve
73
(spring water example) There are 2 sellers of spring water on the mountain trail. What does seller 1s reaction function line represent
tells us firm 1's optimal (profit maximising) level of production for every level out output of its rival firm
74
What does seller 1 and seller 2's reaction functions mean and what does the cournot equilibrium represent
cournot equilibrium- neither firm has incentive to adjust their prices/ both their **best response**
seller 1 reaction function- their optimal level of production for every level of seller 2 production + visa versa
75
What do the arrows A-->E represent
A- seller 2 enters market
- in response seller 1 sells at B
- seller 2 increases output to C
- D is response by seller 1 and continues
76
What do the arrows A-->E represent
A- seller 2 enters market
- in response seller 1 sells at B
- seller 2 increases output to C
- D is response by seller 1 and continues
77
Is the cournot equilibrium model limited to representing just two firms
no
78
What is the Nash equilibrium in game theory
definition- where competitor is pursuing best possible strategy given the likely strategy of the other competitors in the game
bottom right corner- point where no incentive for either competitor to move
79
Which box is the collusive outcome and which is the Nash equillibrium
80
Why does backward induction state that collusion is not feasible
each player will cheat in every round
81
In the prisoners dilemma, repetition of games gives scope for previous cheaters to be punished in later rounds. What is the grim trigger
rival cheats and you never co-operate with them again, game will repeat at Nash **equilibrium forever**
82
What are some ways of collusion in practice
1. price matching- "if you find a lower price for this product we will match it"- warning other firms not to lower price because both firms will loose out
2. information via trade/ journals
83
What does a concentration ratio do
measure of seller concentration in the market
84
What is the concentration ratio (Cn)
% of the value of sales accounted for by the N largest firms in the market
85
What does a high/low Concentration ratio (Cn) value mean
high %- high levels concentration
low %- Low levels concentration
86
C4 ratio= concentration ratio using the top 4 firms
87
What does the concentration ratio not take into account
the size distribution of firms
88
What is the HH index (Herfindahl-Hirschman)
index which takes into account all the firms in a market and is the sum of all of their squares of the markert shares in each firm. Usually a value between 0-10,000
89
In a HH index on the scale 0-10,000; what does 0 represent and what does 10,000
0= perfect comp
5,000= duopoly
10,000= pure monopoly
90
What would be the HH index for this
This still suggests an oligopoly, but the measure has a fairer comparison across market structures than Cn index
91
What is asymmetric information
**one side of transaction knows more than other side**/ one or more agents hold better information sets, giving them advantages over other agents in the market
92
Why is asymmetric information bad
- end up with a market where only low quality goods are traded
leads to economic inefficiency/ in perfect comp all competitors have same information
93
There are two type of asymmetric information. What is adverse selection and what is moral hazard
adverse selection- one side of the transaction knows about themselves which the other side does not (buying a faulty car/ car insurance/ you are not going to say you are a bad driver/ degree courses how do you know which will give u best opp)
moral hazard- one side can take actions the other side cannot observe (insurance company cannot see the way you drive)
94
In the context of asymmetric information, what is a peach and what is a lemon
peach- a product that is good and reliable
lemon- unreliable
95
In the context of asymmetric information, what is a peach and what is a lemon
peach- a product that is good and reliable
lemon- unreliable
with asymmetric information it is impossible to tell between the two (i.e buying a used car)
96
In the context of asymmetric information, how do you solve the lemon and peaches problem with warranties
high quality goods can give warranties (iPhone) because they know the return rate on their product is low. Low quality goods cannot because their product is bad and they will loose money
97
How do higher quality goods signal their true worth in the product market/financial market/ labour market
98
99
Why might employers offer a higher wage to people with a university degree
degree is seen as
-improving human capital (knowledge enhancing)
-signal of higher productivity
100
How could a university degree loose its value of signalling a higher productivity
pooling equillibrium- if they become too easy to obtain
101
How have A level tags created market pooling
increase in A level grades makes it difficult for uni administration to distinguish between high/low productivity workers
102
Why might this be the case
Because HP people may be smarter and see it as less of a struggle/cost to obtain a degree because they wouldnt have to put in as much effort as a LP person to obtain the same degree. A LP person may see obtaining a degree as too much work and therefore too high a cost (relative to rewards)
103
If HP workers go to uni and LP workers don't, what separating equilibrium occurs in wages
HP workers are paid high wage and LP workers are paid low wage, as a degree becomes a symbol of HP
104
For a degree to maintain its worth, what must be the cost of obtaining one for a LP worker and a HP one
105
The red line is the return from education (represented as wage). When should the LP worker stop higher education and when should the HP
LP should not do higher education; difference between return and schooling is at max
HP- stop at e, as max return between school and return
106
What happens to the amount of education LP and HP should get for max return, when the value of a degree falls/ cost of acquiring a degree falls
less productive workers now have C' instead of C. Their greatest return is now at e, because B-E is bigger than A-0 at the start.
This leads to **labour market pooling** because HP workers also have greatest benefit at e
107
Why should a HP workers not go for e' levels of education and should stay at e*
more education will give less and less return because B stays at a constant place. They will loose out
108
Barriers that could be put up to differentiate between HP and LP workers, in a firm who is hiring workers
-raise entry requirements for jobs
-recruit only from top universities
-rigorous interviews
-offer short term contracts to assess productivity
109
Possible solutions to moral hazards (insurance/ health insurance) (one party has tendency to take risks because the cost that could incur would not be felt by the person taking the risk)
for insurance- exclusion clauses, no claims discount
110
What incentives could stop 'slacking' in the workplace
bonuses, pay rises, monitoring
111
How does slacking occur as a moral hazard in the workplace
worker (agent) acts on behalf of the company (principle). The worker has more information about their actions than the company does because it cannot completely monitor the worker. This may lead to slacking
112
How can external contracts be a moral hazard (e.g. with a plumber)
contractors may not deliver on quality/time
113
What relationship is there between income per capita and Ad spent per capita of a country
positive relationship between income per capita and Ad spent per capita
114
What is total advertising spend per capita
money spent on advertising per person
115
What how is advertising intensity (AI) related to degree of competition (market comp MC) in the market
Inverted U shaped relationship
-Low market conc (comp market) AI is low. Firms more likely to use price to compete than advertising
-Higher MC (oligolisitic) AI is high and firms will want to avoid price competition (kinked demand curve)
116
What markets are represented on the line past CR*
higher concentration markets (oligopoly/monopoly right at the end)
117
What is a high concentration market
market where few firms have most of market (oiligopolies/monopolies)
118
monopoly is right at the end of the curve. Why does it still have a level of advertising (curve is not at 0)
Monopolies still need to let customers know their website is out there/ advertising is not used to increase market share
119
Why is advertising intensity generally less for more durable products
**more durable=more expensive= less advertising** / customers tend not to rely upon advertising for significant/ expensive purchases
120
What are the factors that affect advertising intensity
a) **degree market comp** (curved graph)
b) **durability** more durable=more expensive=less advertising
c) brand proliferation
121
Why can brand proliferation increase advertising costs
122
How would advertising improve a firms market position (2)
1. generate more sales
2. enhance brand loyalty
123
How would advertising generate more sales by **shifting the demand curve to the right**. What dictates how far it moves to the right (2)
**advertising elasticity of demand**
1. the persuasivness of the campaign
2. susceptibility of customers to advertising
124
What is the advertising elasticity of demand
1. the persuasivness of the campaign and
2. susceptibility of customers to advertising
125
This is a firms demand curve and it is selling a product at P*. How does the demand curve change in the firm starts advertising the product
126
D1 is before advertising and D2 is after advertising. What area shows the revenue gained through advertising
127
This is an inelastic demand curve changing due to advertising (D1 and D2). The second diagram is an elastic firm. Draw their second demand curve if the firm does the same amount of advertising as the other
Advertising has a greater impact the more elastic the demand curve/ the **greater advertising elasticity of demand**.
If something has a greater advertising elasticity of demand then the Demand curve shifts more to the right
128
D1 is before advertising and D2 is after advertising. What area shows the revenue gained through advertising
129
If advertising increases a bands loyalty, how will their demand curve change
Hope is to shift to right as well as make it more inelastic.
-demand curve becomes steeper as the brand can charge higher prices and will not change the amount of customers that much
130
A brand has advertised and brand loyalty has increased so curve is more inelastic. The brand will now charge a higher price above P*. Show how by doing this their loss in customers doesn't outweigh their gain in revenue from charging a higher price
131
How would you work out the numerical revenue gained at P* for D1
P* x Q1
Total sales revenue= price x quantity sold
132
What does the phrase "burning money" refer to in an advertising technique for high quality goods
Firms selling HQ goods will send more on advertising at first. This is "burning money" so as to secure a higher price and repeat purchases/ gain a good reputation
133
Why can low quality goods not use the advertising technique "burning money"
-LQ goods cannot do this as they wouldnt have repeat buys. This advertising campaign would loose the firm money
(burning money- spending a lot on advertising initially for HQ goods to gain a good rep and get repeat buys)
134
If customers cannot tell the difference between LQ and HQ goods what will happen to the market
all firms will get the same price
135
What is a sunk cost
cost that cannot be recovered even if the firm leaves the market
136
How can advertising be any entry deterrent
can create brand loyalty to big brands. Big brands are established and it makes if difficult for a new brand to get a market share
137
Example of low advertising industries and high
low advertising- water companies
high advertising- jewellery
138
This shows relationship between market conc (perfect comp or monopoly) and the set up costs to enter the market. Why in low advertising industries do set up costs decrease as the market size gets bigger
If the market size is bigger, there are more brands and therefore less established brands (monopolies) to compete with
139
For a search good, what type of advertising will these goods generally have
Informational/ key features/ try to convince you to test out
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What type of advertising will these goods generally have
141
What type of advertising will these goods generally have
142
What is price discrimination
All consumers have different utility functions/willingness to pay for a service or good
143
What are examples of price discrimination
-students getting lower price train tickets/bus fares
-tesco club cards gives members discounts
- season tickets- bus fare would be lower than buying individual tickets
- more expensive in restaurants at peak time/ discounts in weekdays
144
What are the conditions for price discrimination
-degree of market power (can change prices without loosing many customers)
-consumers must have different willingness to pay (different groups must have diff. elasticities of demand)
-firm is a price maker
-the **markets the firm charges different prices in must be separate** to prevent resale. E.g. stopping an adults using a child’s ticket
145
What are some ways to limit resales
-void **warranty** agreement if good is resold
-**tying a good to a particular consumer** (student must carry railcard or price is invalid/ student discounts on haircut cannot be resold)
146
What is the first degree of price discrimination
1. firm tries to judge the maximum a buyer is willing to pay and **charges them that price**
147
Under uniform pricing MR line falls at twice the rate of the demand curve. How is this different under price discrimination
MR= demand curve
148
Under uniform pricing, using the diagram what quantity will a firm produce and at what price
will sell where where marginal revenue= marginal cost
MR=MC
so Q* and P* (price taken from demand curve)
149
What area is the consumer surplus under uniform pricing (when the price consumers pay for a product or service is **less than the price they're willing to pay**)
ABP* triangle (top small one)
150
Under uniform pricing (normal from beginning of course) What area is the firms profits equal to
rectangle P*BDE
151
Now look at this graph for a company who is using price discrimination. The demand curve= MR (ignore pink line). At first they will charge the first person a high price at A, then the second person a slightly lower price and so on. Will charge prices all along the demand curve until it gets to C. **Why will it not charge a price below C**
The demand curve= MR curve.
At C MR=MC (green line). Beyond C, marginal costs will be greater than marginal revenue
-profits are maximised when MR=MC
152
If the price discriminating firm now charges the price E, what area on the graph is its profits
triangle ACE
-
153
Will the uniform pricing system (sells at point E), or price discriminating system (sells at P*) sell to more customers
price discriminating system; sells at E which has higher Q than at P*.
154
What is the second degree of price discrimination (bulk-buying)
- different prices charged for different quantities of the same good
firm **selling at different prices** depending on how much for the good the customer buys
-getting unlimited data for £20 and using lots of data is cheaper per GB than getting limited data and using less
155
The firm charges Pu and Qu. What does the yellow shaded area show
firms profits
156
In a uniform price setting a firm will sell at p2 and q2 which must mean MC=MR here. Their profits is the yellow shaded area. If bulk buying is introduced; person 1 buys quantity 0-Q1 and pays P1, to person 3 who buys Q2-Q3 will pay P3. Explain how this **bulk-buying method brings in more profit than just uniform pricing**
blue shaded areas are additional profits from second degree price discrimination, added to the yellow area which is profit under uniform pricing
157
What is third degree price discrimination (seperation)
-identifying groups of consumers with different sensitivities to variations in price
separates consumers into different groups based on their **relative price elasticity of demand and charges them accordingly**
158
This firm sells the same product in an elastic market and an inelastic one. What price would they sell at in the elastic market sell vs the inelastic market sell and what are their combined profits
Both sell where MR=MC (green line hits blue line)
elastic market-P2
inelastic- P1
combined profits= blue area
159
What is arbitrage
e.g buying in an elastic market and selling in an inelastic market
160
Say these individual markets collapsed (due to arbitrage) and become combined. What would the combined demand curve look like
1. initially same as inelastic
2. At point when elasticity starts to set in the demand curve becomes elastic ( second pink line)
161
In the combined market the firm will charge P*. How does this show that markets under third degree price discrimination are better than a combined market
under third degree price discrimination (charging different prices depending on how elastic audience is), more profits are made; blue area is bigger than yellow
162
Compare total welfare, firm welfare and consumer welfare under price discrimination markets and monopoly pricing markets
-total welfare and firm welfare better under price discrimination but
-customer welfare isn't (eg. is it fair that interactional students pay higher than home?)
163
What is product differentiation
firm making efforts to make consumers perceive its products as **being different from others on the market**
164
How can product differentiation help a firm avoid price competition
creates brand loyalty (Evian water)
165
How are water brands an example of product differenciation
buxton, evian, smart water all sell the same product (water) but market it as different from the other water brands in the market
166
How can firms use product differentiation to segment the market
cater for different consumer types/ offer different versions of their products e.g different types of razor blades
167
How do firms differenciate their products?
-advertising (fixed cost so must balance this out with sales)
-patents/copyright make it difficult for rivals to imitate
168
What is horizontal product differentiation
products differ but their attributes are of **similar** quality (textbooks/ mortgages)
-can be between competing firms or firms own products (different version of the product) (Santander offers different types of mortgages fixed rate/discount mortgage)
169
what is vertical product
**real physical differences** in quality between products
-bmw is better than another car
-can be between competing firms or firms own products e.g stadiums offer different types of seats closer or further away from pitch
170
What are 'important characteristics' of a product
characteristics that consumers have a clear preference over/ determinant over what a customer will buy
171
Here we have 3 packages for seats at a football game. If prices are at a-c-b, the consumers affordable set it bound along a-c-b and the same for C*. Say the prices of packages A and B stay the same (a, b on lines stay same place), but prices of package C change to c*. Has package C price **gone up or down**
gone up, less space alone a-c*-b than a-c-b, so customer has less affordable set/budget constraint
171
Here we have 3 packages for seats at a football game. If prices are at a-c-b, the consumers affordable set it bound along a-c-b and the same for C*. Say the prices of packages A and B stay the same (a, b on lines stay same place), but prices of package C change to c*. Has package C price **gone up or down**
gone up, less space alone a-c*-b than a-c-b, so customer has less affordable set/budget constraint
172
Why might this indifference curve set up mean firms might want to introduce a new package of football stadium seating
Suzzy is indifferent to points a and b along her I2 indifference curve, but she would prefer to be on I3 (where dotted line meets I3)
173
How would football clubs even find out it may be in their best interests to introduce a new package
clubs need to **identify** the different **preference segments** and possibly **tailor packages** to cater for them
174
Why would the club need a relatively large group of 'suzies' in order to actually create a third package
potentially large fixed cost to introduce new packages (might need to build new seats our pay chefs) so revenue earned must outbalance new fixed costs
175
Why might it be in Kellogg interests to product differentiate
they have brand loyalty, so introduce new cereals of different flavours to take customers away from rivals (who offer those flavours) and over to Kellogg/ take up more market share and establish a degree of monopoly power/ increase barriers to entry/ could make supernormal profits
176
What is an example of (1) not being created but (2) happening
Tesla are already a legal entity in the electricity vehicle market, but if they invest into a Berlin factory they are just bringing extra capacity to the European electrical vehicle market
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What is an example of (2) not being created
but (1) happening
takeover or merging/ ASDA sold from Walmart to TDR brings no new capacity to the market just transfers it from one legal entity to the other
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Why do economists always want to promote entry to markets and reduce entry barriers
generates more competition in markets
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Why do economists always want to promote entry to markets and reduce entry barriers
generates more competition in markets
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How can new entires in a market lead to all other firms making less profits
New enters shift supply curve to S2 which means firms have to take a lower price
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How can new entires in a market lead to all other firms making less profits (firms make normal profits only)
New enters shift supply curve to S2 which means firms have to take a lower price
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What is the contestable market theory
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What are 4 main barriers of entry to a market
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What are incumbent firms
firms already in a market/ not entering
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Why are 'absolute cost advantages' that incumbent firms have, a barrier for new entries
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Why are 'absolute cost advantages' that incumbent firms have, a barrier for new entries
-big supermarkets have already established product chains
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What is 'full line forcing' of incumbent brands which makes it hard for new entries
already established firms mag have control over distribution channels (e.g car firms control car dealerships and decide what models are sold in their garages)(cereal brands can take up shelf space)
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How is product differentiation of established brands a barrier to new entry
adverting can enhance brand loyalty which can make products price inelastic
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What is a barrier exit
anything that restricts the ability of incumbent firms to **redeploy assets from one market to another**
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Why will a large barrier to exit, be a barrier to entry
if entry is risky, firms will be concerned about recovering the value of their investments if the market becomes turbulent if they need to exit
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What are 4 barriers to exit
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How is 'ownership of specialised and durable assets' a barrier to exit
-firm **cannot convert its equipment into cash upon exit**
-such assets have few potential customers and so must stay in the same market
-sunk cost/ cannot resell assets
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What word be an example of a firm that has 'ownership of specialised and durable assets'
chemical or nuclear factories
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How are 'fixed costs of exit' a barrier to entering a market and exiting
if the firm closes down, it will have to pay all these fees
-compensation for breaking any long term contracts
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What are 'strategic considerations' and why would they be a barrier for exit
-by becoming a smaller organisation (after pulling out of one market) firm may loose **bargaining power, bulk buying**
- could also loose shared facilities or not be able to meet customers needs
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What are government barriers of exit
195
What are innocent vs strategic entry deterance
196
What are 3 ways types strategic entry deterrence
-joint cost raising
-investment in excess capacity
-predatory pricing
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types of entry deterrence; What is joint cost raising
- raises the rivals costs to make their business unprofitable (also raises the cost of the firm doing it)
- can be done through:
-dirty tricks-convincing customers rivals products are unsafe
-raising switching costs-introduce consumer reward schemes(clubcard)
-prodcut improvement- pharmaceutical companies lobby for tighter restrictions/standards
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What is increasing input costs
199
types of entry deterrence; what is investment in excess capacity
in response to new entry, an incumbent firm will increase its production, which will reduce price and hit industry profits. (costly to incumbent firm but is a signal of aggression)
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What is predatory pricing
firms will charge a price below their average cost in order to drive rivals out of buisness or deter entry, then raising prices when threat has receded
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Why can only big companies do predatory pricing
must be willing to make a loss in the short run, in order to get excessive profits in the long run once rivals go out of business/entry is deterred
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What conditions are needed for predatory pricing/ predation
-**high degree strategic interdependence**- if you lower your price it will lower your rivals sales
-**deep pockets**- make a loss in order to drive others out
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How is customer welfare effected with predatory pricing
204
Does predation/ predatory pricing work
- with low barriers it shouldnt, as firms can enter and exit during unprofitable periods (hit and run)
-However if a firm keeps doing this they can get a reputation for being unreliable
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What is 'hit and run' entry and exit
with low barriers to entry , a firm can enter the market when prices are high (profitable industry) and leave during unprofitable periods.
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What is the difference between corporate strategy and business unit strategy
corporate strategy- influence all buisness units (apple headquarters California)
business strategy- apple (Europe) will tailor its strategy such as pricing for the European market
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In perfect comp and oligopoly, where will firms set their prices and which will make normal profits, and which supernormal
perfect comp- **P=MC=AC normal profits**
oligopoly- **P>MC supernormal profits**
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What are the 5 factors that effect a firms profitability in a given market (porters 5 forces)
209
How does threat of substituted products effect a firms profitability
example 2- channel tunnel would hit profitability of cross-channel ferries
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How does the bargaining power of suppliers effect a firms profitability
211
How does the bargaining power of buyers effect a firms profitability
212
How does intensity and industry rivalry effect a firms profitability
when rivalry is high- market is less profitable
if firms collude/ less rivalry the market becomes more profitable
213
What are two strategies to gain a long term competitive advantage in a market
214
How does the differentiation strategy help a firm to gain a long term competitive advantage in a market
making their product **differ from rivals**. Usually involves providing extra benefits or product features such as:
215
What must happen for the differentiation strategy to work (strategy to help a firm to gain a long term competitive advantage in a market)
if a firm is able to charge a high price to consumers to cover the cost of making the improved product differentiation packages (improvements to product that make it different from rivals)
216
How does the low cost strategy help a firm to gain a long term competitive advantage in a market
tries to improve profitability by **reducing costs to the minimum**. Typically offer a **basic product**
217
Which markets are likely to use price strategy as a way to enhance profitability inelastic/elastic
elastic - aim to raise sales volume by lowering prices. Viable when market is sensitive to price change and get many more customers for lowering a price
217
Which market inelastic/elastic is likely to use price strategy as a way to enhance profitability and which would favour differentiation
elastic - price strategy; aim to raise sales volume by lowering prices. Viable when market is sensitive to price change and get many more customers for lowering a price
inelastic- differentiation; customers might be less concerned with price (substance is addictive or no close substitutes or good is a necessity)
218
What are the advantages and disadvantages of price discrimination (charging different prices for different people)
advantages:
-**firms increased revenue** (train companies who offer different prices for peak and off peak
-**Lower prices for some**
-**Manages demand** airlines use cheaper early morning flights to avoid over-crowding and helps to spread out demand
disadvantages:
-**Higher prices for some**
-**Potentially unfair** For example, adults paying full price could be unemployed, senior citizens can be very well off
-**Decline in consumer surplus** Price discrimination enables a transfers money from consumers to firms – contributing to increased inequality
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For goods and services, demand peaks at particular times/ roads and public transport during commuter rush hours, for electricity during late afternoon and so on. What is true about the MC of an extra house of electricity/ commuter on highway
MC=high during peak periods because of capacity constraints. Prices should be higher during peak periods.
(D1 is peak period) The firm sets MC = MR for each period.
-It is also efficient; the sum of producer and consumer’s surplus is greater because prices are closer to MC
220
What factors will effect the Advertising Elasticity of Demand/ how much extra customers advertising will get a firm
1)Income of the people of the region/ economic crisis/ don't spend a lot on adverts if people can't afford it
2)substitute price- even with advertising if a similar product has a lower price that will take away from the success of the advertising
3)
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Cereal adverts might not even have a lot of information in them but only a highly paid actor. So how would it influence people to buy more
The willingness of the firm to spend a large amount of money on advertising can itself be a signal toconsumers about the quality of the product being offered
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How might car brands change their car characteristics to satisfy the 'characteristics approach' (idea that people won't buy items that do not have their preferred characteristics)
A consumer may never purchasing a particular car, because it fails to offer the required combination of, speed and comfort. In recent years cars will have both speed and comfort in response to the observation that preferences do not typically lie at the extremes of the characteristics spectrum
