Yr 12 Ecosystems and Biodiversity Flashcards

Question

How is climate change affecting coral reef ecosystems?

Answer 1

Coral reefs only survive in specific water temperatures and are particularly vulnerable to climate change as the temperature of the water rises above what they can survive in

Answer 2

A set of information which is used to make comparisons to future data

Answer 3

When we collectively forget about the condition of the natural environment in the past and accept the new conditions as the norm

Answer 4

* A situation where even small changes can cause significant consequences * It happens when ecosystems no longer have the resilience to deal with even relatively low levels of vulnerability

Answer 5

* Preservation is the protection of a habitat/species in its existing form, it often involves the prevention of all human activities in the protected area * Conservation involves active resource management and the planned use of natural resources to minimise waste and environmental damage

Answer 6

Global: * International agreements * Global forums Regional: * NGOs * Intergovernmental cooperation National: * Federal, state, and territory policies around the environment * Environmental laws, e.g. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 states Aus’s obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity Local: * Protection & conservation of local ecosystems and natural areas * Bushcare groups, e.g. Hornsby Shire Council Bushcare group takes care of the critically endangered Blue Gum High Forest Individual: * Decisions about the goods and services we consume, e.g. not buying fast-fasion * Recycling * Political movements around environmentalism

Answer 7

* Volunteers in local councils who carry out work such as the removal of weeds and rubbish, and bush regeneration through planting * provides critical habitat for native species, providing refuge for animals.

Answer 8

Ecosystems that cross country borders.

Answer 9

* difficult for different governments across the region to coordinate efforts * Non-governmental organisations, such as Flora and Fauna International, work with local communities and authorities * they help to better manage the landscape and cooperate with different governments

Answer 10

Global Heat Budget: * ensures conditions on Earth are not too hot or too cold to support life * moves heat around via wind and ocean currents * warm air and water are carried away from Equator towards the poles * cool air and water move from poles towards Equator * impacts climate, vegetation, and faunal patterns

Answer 11

* Ecosystem management approach that aims to rebuild ecosystems that have been heavily modified by human activities * often involves reintroducing a species that have become locally extinct * e.g. Wolves have been reintroduced to Yellowstone, Spain, Italy, Romania, and Poland

Answer 12

1. Agriculture - 80% of global deforestation, 50% of habitable land 2. Urbanisation and Infrastructure - affects 10% of vertebrate species through habitat loss 3. Logging and Deforestation - lost over 100mil ha of forest from 2000-2020, logging causes 30% of forest degradation 4. Mining

Answer 13

1. Latin America - 94% loss, mostly amphibian, fish, and reptile 2. Africa - 65% loss, e.g. Rhinos and elephants 3. Asia Pacific - 45% loss, mostly from changes in land use, overexploitation, invasive species, disease, pollution, and climate change 4. North America - 33% loss, e.g. dugongs 5. Europe and Central Asia - 24% loss, mostly from consumption footprints

Answer 14

Most Westerly point in Australia (25.8°S, 114°E)

Answer 15

* Contains some of the oldest life forms on Earth - stromatolites * Semi-arid environment * Low rainfall of ~250mm/year

Answer 16

Faure Island

Answer 17

* Used to be a pastoral station - place where sheep and goats graze on the land * Destroys the natural heathland and shrubland as animals eat it * Degrades the soil from animals walking & removing vegetation * Significant infestation of weeds such as buffel grass * In 1999, over 2000 feral goats on the island had a majorly negative impact on the natural flora * Feral cats and foxes had destroyed the populations of native mammals, leaving only one species of bat as the only mammal on the island

Answer 18

animals are moved from one site and reintroduced into another that was once part of their habitat

Answer 19

* used to reintroduce five species of threatened and endangered mammals to the island, four of which were successful * Successful - Shark Bay Bandicoot, Banded Hare-wallaby, Shark Bay Mouse, and Boodie * Banded Hare-wallaby population: 4,800 in 2023

Answer 20

* Conservation did not allow for the site to continue as a pastoral station * This would have negative economic consequences for farmers who have the right to use the land to raise their animals * It could have been improved by providing farmers with a new area to raise animals

Answer 21

* Conservation reinstated much of the natural habitat, allowing future generations to benefit from natural ecosystem services, E.g. clean water and air * Future Indigenous generations can benefit from the natural habitat as a part of their cultural connection to the land and water

Answer 22

* AWC conservation recognised the extremely dangerous risks of pastoral activity * Mitigated these risks by buying out farmers who used the island and putting a stop to pastoral activity * Danger of feral animals to the natural ecosystem was recognised and dealt with by eradication * Danger of the lack of biodiversity and potential ecosystem collapse was mitigated by translocation of species * Fire risk of dry weeds such as Buffel grass is mitigated by regular spraying * Fire breaks (gap in vegetation) that have been built and are maintained on the island to minimise the risk of fire spreading if it does break out * Regular survey data is used to mitigate environmental risks, e.g. evidence of overgrazing leads to the installation of fences to protect the native vegetation * Before translocation programs, extensive research was conducted, including trapping and using radio-collars (monitors animal movement), to ensure that the programs were successful

Answer 23

* Four of the species that had been killed in the area were successfully reintroduced via translocation and now have thriving populations * Eradication of feral goats and pastoral activities allowed natural flora to regrow * Eradication of feral cats and foxes allowed reintroduced species to thrive * The saving of this ecosystem allows for bird species that use the island for breeding to continue to breed * Weeds are regularly sprayed to allow natural flora to grow * Regular surveys, including live trapping, provide data on biodiversity and abundance of species

Answer 24

* hunting of certain species was forbidden, creating sanctuary areas ↳ similar to the ways in which national parks organise contemporary management planning * Rules around when certain plants and animals could be eaten and by who, created sustainable harvesting practices that allowed for regeneration and recovery * taboo for anyone to kill or eat their own totem, preventing species from being hunted and eaten by everyone ↳ adopted in contemporary management through the concept of biocapacity

Answer 25

* Located off the east coast of northern Queensland * Stretches approx 2300 km from Papua New Guinea’s Fly River in the north (8°S) to K’gari in the south (25°S) * Mostly Coral Sea

Answer 26

* Made of 2000+ reefs comprise 10% of world's coral reefs * Over 600 types of coral * 348,000 km² - full area is World heritage

Answer 27

above 17-18°C but below 33-34°C

Answer 28

* 3.5% salt * Too much salt stunts coral growth, and not enough will kill zooxanthellae

Answer 29

* Form in shallow waters close to the shoreline → common along the shores of the many islands within the GBR * Globally, these are very vulnerable reefs because they are most accessible to humans

Answer 30

* Often referred to as offshore reefs, located well away from coasts * Most common within GBR system * Support different biodiversity to the fringing reefs, far less fragile, as they are constantly assaulted by the power of the ocean waves

Answer 31

* Hard Corals: more dominant in GBR, over 400 species, they have a hard outer skeleton made of calcium carbonate * Soft Corals: less common and do not have a calcium carbonate skeleton

Answer 32

* a coral polyp with a limestone outer skeleton that lives on the skeleton of the coral * Symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae live inside the polyp

Answer 33

The zooxanthellae produce sugars and oxygen while the polyp provides nutrients

Answer 34

Animals without backbones (invertebrates). They are divided into two broad categories: * Sedentary Cnidarians - unable to move, e.g. corals and sea anemones * Mobile Cnidarians - able to move, e.g. jellyfish

Answer 35

* Mammals live on the reef all year round * population of 2800 dugongs is one of the biggest in the world ↳ very important as they are considered a vulnerable species * Australian snubfin dolphin and Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin are also both vulnerable species living in the GBR * Thousands of migratory whales use the GBR for breeding and calving

Answer 36

* Around 9000 total species * over 600 species of coral * at least 1625 species of fish * around 175 species of birds * over 30 species of mammals * large numbers of species of cnidarians, crustaceans, molluscs, and echinoderms

Answer 37

extensive size of the reef system increases its resilience by minimising opportunities for impact across the whole of the system

Answer 38

* usually cause damage to the coral themselves * waves rip apart the softer corals, while the hard corals are chipped and damaged * reef system becomes buried by sediments * Large amounts of rain flood the reef with freshwater, decreasing the salinity and increasing turbidity of the water

Answer 39

* Reefs tend to grow best where there is high wave energy * The seaward (front) part absorbs much of the energy, creating an area of relatively calm water behind it

Answer 40

* Powerful currents move vast quantities of water and nutrients across the reef * provides energy into the food chain * helps to support the enormous biodiversity of the reef

Answer 41

* Events or forces that cause the death of organisms within an ecosystem * can be biological, e.g. disease, or non-biological, e.g. natural disaster * can change the spatial patterns of populations of organisms * can change the character and nature of the whole ecosystem

Answer 42

* native to the GBR but are invasive due to high populations * major cause of coral loss

Answer 43

* May be due to increased nutrients in water from nearby human activity, increasing phytoplankton levels, which larvae can eat * May be due to reduction in predator levels (giant triton, coral trout, rock cod, and tropical snapper) as they are commonly caught by commercial and recreational fishers * Have a high capacity to reproduce as they can reproduce sexually and asexually, releasing millions of eggs each year and reach sexual maturity very quickly

Answer 44

A COTSBOT injects Crown of Thorns (COTS) starfish with vinegar or bile to kill them

Answer 45

* Climate change increases the intensity of tropical cyclones * They are formed from temperature differences between a warmer ocean and cooler atmosphere * Climate change makes the air temperature warmer, reducing the frequency of cyclones * However, the ones that do occur will be stronger, longer, and more intense due to energy from the warming ocean

Answer 46

As the ocean absorbs CO2, the hydrogen ions become more concentrated, and the carbonate ions become less concentrated. This causes the ocean to become more acidic.

Answer 47

* Ocean acidification * Changed ocean circulation patterns * Changes in nutrient upwellings * Increased temperature * Rising sea level

Answer 48

* Slows calcification - less coral growth & weaker coral structure * Reduces plankton’s ability to build shells, plates, and skeletons - base of the food chain * Affects fish reproduction - eggs are impacted by acidity

Answer 49

* Changed ocean circulation patterns - birds have to travel further to find food * Provisioning failure - mass mortality and failure of eggs to hatch

Answer 50

* Whales breed in warm waters during Winter - change in patterns can lead to lack of nutrients/less shelter for calves as they breed in the wrong locations or at the wrong time * Whales live in cold water - reduced habitat * More turtles born female in warmer temperatures - reduced breeding

Answer 51

Rising sea levels reduce nesting sites for turtles

Answer 52

* Changes in location, frequency, and timing * Less fish and predators are attracted * Impacts food chain functioning

Answer 53

* Anchors damage coral and dredge up seagrass beds * Oil and fuel spills * Rubbish thrown overboard * Sewage released into ocean * Can introduce feral aquatic species by releasing ballast water from overseas.

Answer 54

* Coastal tourism - on land, strains coastal environments and rivers * Island tourism - sewage and rubbish discharges, disrupts turtle and bird breeding sites * Marine tourism - boats bring rubbish and potentially oil spills, moorings and anchors destroy coral * Water activities - divers breaking coral, sunscreen chemicals damage corals * Wildlife interactions - people touching or hurting wildlife can impact breeding cycles and natural interactions * Trampling and souveniring of coral - disrupts natural processes and kills coral

Answer 55

* Increased housing results in land clearing, increasing surface runoff * Brings more nutrients, sediment, sewage and other pollutants * Clearing of wetlands reduces habitats and nurseries for many species that also live in the reef, such as birds and crustaceans * Wetlands also contain freshwater, which flows into the reef when it is diminished, affecting salinity levels.

Answer 56

* Aquaculture farms can release chemicals and diseases * Land agriculture on the coast uses chemical fertilisers, which can increase nutrients in the reef through surface runoff * This increases algae growth, which smothers the reef and reduces light intensity * Soil erosion from agriculture can result in sediment being deposited into the reef.

Answer 57

* Very large ships need to travel through reef to carry away coal, increasing the number of ports and ships * Burning coal releases carbon dioxide, increasing ocean acidification and climate change

Answer 58

* We deposit tonnes of plastic into the ocean * Doesn’t break down for up to hundreds of years * Ocean current debris can travel vast distances, impacting even isolated parts of the reef * ~80% of this debris is plastic * Can cause gastrointestinal blockage, reproductive impairment, and other health issues * Biomagnification of plastics affects all levels of the food chain * Plastics such as fishing nets, wire, bags, and beer rings can choke animals, killing or injuring them * Soft plastics can smother corals, increasing chance of disease due to stress or lack of light.

Answer 59

* Record-breaking temperatures in GBR in 2020 * Average summer surface temp was 28.6°C * January average surface temp was 29.2°C Caused by: * Delay in wet season in Northern Aus * Less cloud cover over reef * Weaker winds across reef * Sea temperatures already warming in Coral Sea due to climate change

Answer 60

* The Commonwealth (federal) government is the primary manager for most of the reef * The Commonwealth and Queensland governments agreed to work together to support research, investment, and protection of the Great Barrier Reef * The GRMPA (GBR Marine Park Authority) is the main agency that advises the Commonwealth * Local councils manage areas along the coast - use their power to veto development applications and manage land use * Islands within the park but not owned by the Commonwealth are protected by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service

Answer 61

* Speed limits have been imposed to reduce the damage caused by the wake (trail) of boats * An education program has been put in place about the need to minimise pollution from boating.

Answer 62

* Allowing certain activities in specific areas of the reef so as not to degrade the overall ecosystem * ensures that the reef will survive for future generations * allows the present generation to access the resources of the reef in the most sustainable way possible

Answer 63

* Promotes education on the importance of environmental protection and the impact of human activities on the reef * Every visitor to the reef pays a fee, which goes towards the GBRMPA to undertake education programs.

Answer 64

* Visitors are encouraged to collect information about the health of the reef ecosystem and report back to the authority via an app * uploading sightings of species of interest gives researchers up-to-date data on the movements of species * contains educational material that allows people to understand the intrinsic, biodiversity, utility, and heritage values of the reef

Answer 65

Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan - 2017: * aims to provide long-term management of water quality across the reef * covers the water on the reef and the land that makes up the river catchment that eventually flows out into the reef * aims for an 80% reduction in dissolved inorganic nitrogen from fertilisers and a 50% reduction of sediment from soil erosion Project Catalyst: * aims to reduce the number of chemical pollutants from 80 sugarcane growers * encourages cow manure instead * seen improvements in 80 billion litres of water annually that flows into the reef.

Answer 66

* Traditional Use of Marine Resource Agreements * aims to balance the customs and culture of First Nations people with the protection of the reef * highlights their rights to use the reef and its resources and to practice their cultures, including educating children in customary laws and practices, and providing traditional food for their families

Answer 67

* Specific shipping zones * Ships that are 70m or longer and any ships carrying oil/chemicals/liquified natural gas must have a pilot to guide the ship through high risk areas * Zoning maps indicate ‘no anchor’ zones - Floating markers and marine park rangers * Public moorings allow boat skippers to secure boat without using anchors

Answer 68

* has representatives from traditional owner groups and senior officials from government agencies * meets regularly * provide expert advice to the authority on the conservation and ecologically sustainable use of the reef and its resources * draw on knowledge from traditional owners and contemporary science

Answer 69

* GBRMPA is key coordinating agency for the management of the GBR * Florida - reef is not managed as a single ecosystem but instead is managed in smaller fragmented sections by different agencies * Within the FKNMS, multiple agencies are involved, though NOAA has overall control * Lack of overall management of the reef and no coordinated approach in Florida, much more coordinated approach from GBRMPA

Answer 70

Population: * Florida is a key growth state in US * Southern Florida has a rapidly expanding population and urban area * severe environmental pressure on the reef, especially urban run-off * however, lots of people have access to the beach and reefs and like to use it * closer proximity to larger populations Tourism: * Tourism value in Florida estimated at US$100billion/year * Reef tourism value estimated at US$8billion/year * One of state’s key sources of income and major employers * Economic priorities of the industry has created challenges for reef managers to enforce regulations * More than 1 million people visit Key West every year as tourists, most via cruise ships * Home to one of the largest cruise ship fleets in the world * Sediment disturbed by ships' propellers smothers shallow water corals and disrupts breeding cycle for many species * Reef access to tourists covers a much larger area * Overfishing and souveniring of coral is a huge problem * Reef extent is smaller (almost 10,000km²) - less area to be used

Answer 71

**Marine Monitoring Program:** ● Establishes baseline data to assess impacts and effectiveness of management strategies ● water quality, coral health, status of seagrasses ● freshwater inflows and pollutants they carry is regularly monitored ● research after extreme weather events, such as habitat recovery, gives researchers guidance on future management strategies **Coral seeding:** ● Scientists collect wild corals from reefs that are full of eggs and sperm ● Once spawning begins, the egg and sperm bundles are collected ● fertilised eggs are reared until they reach the larval stage ● placed into specially designed plugs that allow them to grow into individual polyps ● Once well-established on the plugs, the infant corals and plugs are attached to coral seeding devices and returned to the reef ● Potential to assist in coral recovery after significant disturbance, such as mass coral bleaching events and cyclone-induced damage **International Coral Reef Initiative:** ● 90 members that represent 75% of world’s coral reefs ● Discuss global challenges to reefs, such as climate change-induced coral bleaching ● Provides managers of GBR with greater resources ● Other managers can learn from the diversity of management strategies used on the GBR

Answer 72

* Between 5°N and 17°S * Between the tropics due to high levels of insolation, thicker atmosphere, lower pressure and rain * Covers 8 countries but 60% is in Brazil - also covers Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, etc.

Answer 73

* Rainforest covers 6 million km² * Exceptional biodiversity - 10% of world’s known species * 80,000 plant species * Thousands of endemic species (found nowhere else on the planet), such as Blue-headed Macaw

Answer 74

* While biodiversity ↑ resilience and ↓ vulnerability, Amazon wildlife populations decreased by ~53% from 1970-2014 * Extremely large - ↑ resilience, however, 17% has been destroyed & if it reached 25% it would be tipping point * Location is prone to changes in temperature and rainfall which impacts biodiversity - ↑ vulnerability * High biodiversity = more interconnections, ↑ resilience

Answer 75

* Natural hazards - fires, droughts, floods, tropical storms, landslides ↳ Increased temperatures, CO2, and climate change make these more intense * Forest cover loss leads to less carbon absorption and more CO2 in atmosphere * Reduction in biodiversity → Savannah, then desertification over time

Answer 76

* Jair Bolsonaro - Former president of Brazil ↳ During the first few years of his presidency, 2019-2022, the deforestation in Brazil rose by ~50% * 4000km Trans Amazonian highway, roads, dams, and hydropower pojects cause forest fragmentation * 17% has been degraded by logging, ~80% of which is illegal ↳ Logging causes loss of forest cover, leading to more CO2, higher temperatures, less rainfall, and more fires * Human-induced climate change leads to less rainfall, more extreme weather events, and more evaporation of water from plants ↳ Severe drought in 2023 reduced fish populations and impacted tree growth ↳ Expected to occur once every 13 years instead of 1,500 years ↳ Amazon has less time to recover * Agriculture, especially cattle-ranching, is the #1 driver of deforestation ↳ Cattle ranching causes 80% (500km2) of deforestation in the Amazon, and causes ~340 million tonnes of carbon emissions annually ↳ Small-scale agriculture, such as soy, palm oil, and sugarcane, also contributes to forest loss and degradation ↳ Acai has been deemed a superfood and is very popular - 0.5million tonnes of Acai byproduct pulp clogs waterways * Deforestation ↳ Negatively impacts biocapacity ↳ Biodiversity loss, e.g. Uakari Monkey is vulnerable from habitat loss ↳ Less trees = less transpiration, clouds, and moisture in the atmosphere ↳ Lack of forest cover and input of organic matter = more nutrient leaching ↳ Cutting down trees releases CO2 and cannot be recycled by photosynthesis

Answer 77

* New president of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, made stopping deforestation a priority ↳ First 6 months deforeststaion fell by 34% ↳ Has handed back control of some areas to Indigenous people ↳ Established headquarters in the Amazonas state to police environmental crimes ↳ Recognition of Indigenous reserves that develop sustainable living practices * International Conventions and Treaties ↳ World Heritage Listing - responsible for protecting rainforest from threats, limits hunting, logging, fishing, and general access ↳ CITES - ensures international trade in plants and animals does not threaten survival of species, significantly reduced deforestation of Brazilian Mahogany ↳ REDD - developed countries with high carbon emissions donate money to countries with reduced deforestation levels to be used for environmental resotration ↳ Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation - joins countries to promote sustainable development and protection of Amazon * Selective logging (only removing a small number of trees) and replanting (replacing cut-down trees) ↳ Allow developing nations to grow economies more sustainably * DETER - real time deforestation detection using spatial technologies ↳ Detects deforestation, degrading and logging daily * The Amazon Fund - biggest supporter ↳ Investments in efforts to prevent, monitor and combat deforestation ↳ Promotes the preservation and sustainable use in the Brazilian Amazon ↳ Receives donations from countries ↳ Currently has ~$610milllion USD available for investments * Carbon credits to encourage reforestation ↳ Carbon credits represent a reduction or removal of one tonne of greenhouse gas emissions from the atmosphere ↳ These are financial products traded in carbon markets, allowing companies and individuals to compensate for their own emissions by supporting projects that reduce or remove carbon elsewhere * 2006 Soy Moratorium - agreement between industry and government that sopped main soy traders from purchasing soybeans produced in areas of the Amazon cleared after July 2006 ↳ By 2012 amount of land cleared decreased by 85%, but then reversed * EU has put restictions on products that contribute to deforestation ↳ Cocoa, soy, cattle, palm oil, etc. * Ecotourism - responsible travel to natural areas ↳ Allows for protection of ecosystem and allows locals to make money sustainably ↳ Reduced the need for deforestation

Answer 78

* Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva approved mining in areas of the Amazon ↳ $69B invested in gas and oil industry * A lot of companies have not taken any action as it is not legally binding (just like the Paris Agreement) * Some people duplicate carbon credits by selling the same credit to multiple different people illegally * Ecotourism only effective in small areas as it can’t generate as much money * Selective logging takes best and oldest wood, promoting weed growth * New seedlings can take at least 60 years to match the size and quality of cut-down trees * International Conventions and Treaties ↳ World Heritage Listing - only a very small portion of rainforest ↳ CITES - doesn’t stop all deforestation ↳ REDD - relies on donations

Answer 79

* Exceptional biodiversity - 10% of world’s known species * 80,000 plant species * Thousands of endemic species (found nowhere else on the planet), such as Blue-headed Macaw * Stores 150billion tonnes of carbon

Answer 80

* High temperatures and rainfall support growth of diverse plant species and rich biodiversity * Carbon cycling - Trees absorb atmospheric CO2 and release oxygen, and store 150billion tonnes of carbon * Amazon relies on water vapour release from transpiration to create rain clouds and release water back into rainforest - maintains moisture and humidity ↳ Heavy rainfall leaches nutrients from soil - crops can only be grown for 2 years in agriculture * Weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition of materials help replenish lost nutrients in Amazon ↳ Each year, dust from Sahara replaces the amount of phosphorus washed away from rainfall * Decomposition of organic material releases nutrients back into the soil

Answer 81

* Remote sensing technologies monitor the rainforest in real time to identify and monitor deforestation ↳ Allows governments to see where vegetation changes are taking place and track the rate of change to make informed decisions about the problem * DETER - detecting real time deforestation using spatial technologies ↳ Detects deforestation, degrading and logging ↳ Issues daily notification ↳ Allows gov to see how quickly land cover is changing and where most deforestation is * Government can: ↳ Monitor changes and identify shifting baselines ↳ Identify areas at risk ↳ Enforce management laws ↳ Assess the effectiveness of current conservation efforts ↳ Make adjustments to current management practices * Collaboration with researchers and Indigenous people ↳ Governments and organisations find effective and sustainable management strategies ↳ Local people can still use natural resources ↳ Improving agricultural and ranching practices ↳ Transforming food production systems ↳ Helping farmers to meet Forest Code requirements ↳ Reshaping daily land use

Answer 82

* Local communities, national governments, and international community * Often managed with strong focus on economic development - logging, mining, cattle ranching, soy agriculture ↳ Agribusiness sector makes up ~25% of GDP * Large-scale deforestation often justified as necessary for national economy and rural poverty ↳ Many local communities depend on farming, fishing, hunting, and gathering from the rainforest to survive ↳ As populations grow and people migrate from rural areas to cities, land use pressures increase * Illegal economic activities (e.g. logging) due to weak enforcement of environmental laws and lack of clear land rights * Some administrations (e.g. Bolsonaro) favoured agribusiness and deregulation over forest * Indigenous land rights often ignored, leading to land degradation, however, 29% has been handed back ↳ Indigenous communities have deep ecological knowledge, but are often marginalised or excluded from official decision-making ↳ Indigenous lands have 66% less deforestation

Answer 83

* Ecotourism-based economy * Over 60% of tourists go for the nature * Forests are considered economic assets for tourism and long-term environmental benefits * Government PES scheme incentivises landowners to preserve or restore forests ↳ Government pays people $80/year for each hectare of forest that is grown or preserved ↳ Protected over 1.3million ha of forest since 1997 * Strong environmental policy and governance and progressive environmental laws * National parks and protected areas cover over 25% of the country, with clear legal frameworks supporting conservation * Strong public environmental awareness and education ↳ 96% of Costa Ricans see environmental protection as a priority * Collaborative relationships between government, NGOs, and local communities foster shared responsibility * Ranked #1 in Happy Planet Index three times since 2009

Yr 12 Ecosystems and Biodiversity Flashcards

(107 cards)