education Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
Identify three ways in which parents’ education may influence how they socialise their children.
A
- Parenting style
Educated parents use consistent discipline and high expectations while less educated parents use harsh, inconsistent discipline. - Parent’s educational behaviours
Educated parents are aware of what they need to do in order to help their child progress and engage in activities such as reading to them and helping with their homework. - Use of income
BERNSTEIN AND YOUNG- m/c mothers are more likely to buy their children educational resources while w/c homes are more likely to lack these resources.
2
Q
Describe the four features of working class subculture described by Sugarman as well as the middle class equivalent.
A
- Fatalism
The belief in fate, “what will be will be” and nothing can be done to change their status. m/c equiv: the idea that one can change their position through effort. - Collectivism
Valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual. m/c equiv: individualism- the idea that an individual shouldn’t be held back by group loyalties. - Immediate gratification
Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices to get rewards in the future. m/c equiv: deferred gratification- making sacrifices now for future rewards. - Present time orientation
Seeing the present as more important than the future and so not having long term goals. m/c equiv: future time orientation- the idea that planning for the future is important.
3
Q
Identify 5 differences between the elaborated code and the restricted code as explained by Bernstein
A
- Restricted code is used by the working class, elaborated code is used by the middle class.
- Restricted code has a limited vocabulary while the elaborated code has a wider vocabulary.
- Restricted code involves grammatically simple sentences, elaborated code involves grammatically complete sentences.
- Elaborated code is analytic, restricted code is descriptive.
- Elaborated code is context free, restricted code is context bound.
4
Q
What is meant by compensatory education? Give examples.
A
These are programmes which aim to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools and communities in deprived areas.
examples: operation head start, sure start, sesame street.
5
Q
Give a criticism of the cultural deprivation theory. (class)
A
One from:
x Keddie: CD is a myth and a victim blaming explanation. W/c pupils are culturally different, not culturally deprived.
x Troyna & Williams: it’s not the child’s language which is the problem but rather the schools attitude towards it.
x Blackstone and Mortimore: w/c parents may want to help their child progress but lack the knowledge and education in order to do so.
6
Q
Suggest 4 ways in which material deprivation may affect achievement. (class)
A
- Issues with housing such as overcrowding may lead to less space to work or illnesses which can cause more absences and therefore lead to underachievement.
- Poor diet and health can lead to health issues or difficulties concentrating in class, leading to underachievement. (Howard)
- The costs of education place a high burden on poor families (Tanner et al) and so poor children may have to have hand-me-downs which may lead to isolation or bullying which can lead to underachievement.
- Fear of debt
Debt averse students are more likely to be working class and are over 5x less likely to apply to uni than debt tolerant students, which leads to their underachievement due to less opportunities for them to enter higher education.
7
Q
Suggest a criticism of the material deprivation theory. (class)
A
x Feinstein shows that educated parents have a positive contribution on their children’s education regardless of their income level.
8
Q
Identify and define the three types of capital described by Bordieu.
A
Cultural capital: the knowledge, attitudes and tastes of the middle class.
Educational capital: parents educational knowledge
Economic capital: wealth
9
Q
How were Bordieu’s ideas tested and what did they find?
A
Sullivan gave 465 students in 4 schools questionnaires to asses their cultural capital.
They were asked questions about activites, whether they visited museums and their knowledge of cultural figures.
Those who engaged in activities such as reading complex fiction had greater cultural capital and tended to be the children of graduates.
Where children of different classes had the same level of capital, middle class pupils still did better due to the greater resources and aspirations of middle class families.
10
Q
What did Becker find out about how teachers label pupils?
A
He interviewed 60 Chicago high school teachers and found that they judged pupils based on how closely they fitted the image of the ideal pupil. M/c pupils were seen as closest to it and w/c pupils seen as furthest away.
11
Q
Explain the difference between labelling and the self fulfilling prophecy.
A
Labelling means to attach a meaning to someone.
A self fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true just by virtue of it having been made. It is a result of labelling.
12
Q
Explain the difference between differentiation and polarisation.
A
LACEY says:
- differentiation is the process of teachers categorising pupils according to how they perceive their ability, attitude or behaviour.
- polarisation is the process where pupils respond to streaming by moving towards one of two opposite extremes (pro/anti school subculture)
13
Q
Identify 4 differences between a pro-school subculture and an anti-school subculture.
A
- pro-school: middle class, anti-school: working class
- pro-school: gain self esteem, anti-school: lose self esteem
- pro-school: committed to school values, anti-school: invert school values
- pro-school: gain status through academic success,
anti-school: gain status from peers
14
Q
Identify two criticisms of labelling theory. (class)
A
x Deterministic
It assumes that people who are labelled have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy and will fail. However studies like that of Fuller show this isn’t the case.
x Marxist critiques
The theory ignores the wider structures of power within which labelling takes place. Labels aren’t the result of teacher prejudice but stem from the fact that teachers work in a system that reproduces class divisions.
15
Q
What is habitus?
A
The dispositions of thinking, being and acting that are shared by a particular social class.
16
Q
What is symbolic capital?
A
Status students gain from the school when they are deemed to have worth or value.
17
Q
Summarise the studies of labelling in secondary and primary schools.
A
DUNNE & GAZELEY studied
- Secondary schools
For w/c pupils they normalised and were unconcerned by their underachievement. They labelled their parents as uninterested in their child’s education. They entered these pupils for easier exams and underestimated their potential.
RIST studied
- Primary schools
The teacher used information about children’s home background and appearance to place them in separate groups:
- tigers were those the teacher decided were fast learners. They were m/c and of neat appearance. The teacher sat them closest to her and showed them the greatest encouragement.
- cardinals and clowns were seated further away and were more likely to be w/c. They were given lower-level books to read and fewer chances to show their abilities.
18
Q
What did Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study into the self fulfilling prophecy reveal?
A
They gave a school an IQ test and told the teachers it was designed to identify which pupils would spurt ahead. They picked 20% of the pupils at random and said the test had identified them as spurters. A year later they found that 47% of them had made significant progress. This is because the teachers interacted with them in line with their beliefs and gave them extra encouragement. This shows the SFP- accepting the prediction that the children would spurt ahead enabled the teachers to make it a reality.
19
Q
What is the A-C economy?
A
GILLBORN AND YOUDELL describe this as a system in which schools focus their time, effort and resources on those pupils they see as having the potential to five grade Cs and so boost the schools’ league table position.
20
Q
What is educational triage?
A
GILLBORN and YOUDELL describe it as the sorting process by which pupils are categorised into one of three groups:
- those who will pass and can be left to get on with it
- those with potential who can be helped to get a grade C or above
- hopeless cases who are doomed to fail
21
Q
What did Ball’s study about the attempt to abolish streaming show?
A
Ball studied a comprehensive school which was in the process of abolishing banding. When banding was banned, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was removed. However, differentiation continued. M/c pupils were still labelled positively and did better due to the SFP. The study showed that class inequalities can continue due to labelling even without subcultures or streaming.
22
Q
What are the four pupil responses to labelling and streaming?
A
- Ingratiation: teachers’ pet
- Ritualism: doing what they’re told and staying out of trouble
- Retreatism: daydreaming and messing around
- Rebellion: rejecting the values of the school
23
Q
What is symbolic violence?
A
The withholding of symbolic capital.
By defining the working class and their lifestyles as inferior, symbolic violence reproduces the class structure and keeps the lower classes in their place.
24
Q
What are Nike identities?
A
ARCHER: The symbolic violence experienced by w/c pupils led to them making identities for themselves through investing in styles such as Nike. It showed their rejection of higher education which they saw as unrealistic because it wasn’t for ‘people like them’ and undesirable because it wouldn’t ‘suit’ their preferred lifestyle or habitus.
25
What did Ingram’s study reveal about working class identity and educational success?
There were two groups of working class boys. One group passed the 11+ and went to a grammar school with a middle class habitus of high expectations while the other group failed he went to a local secondary school with a habitus of low expectations of its underachieving pupils.
Having a w/c identity was inseparable from belonging to a w/c locality. However the boys felt pressure to conform, especially the grammar school boys who felt a tension between their w/c habitus and the m/c habitus of their school.
For example, Callum opted to fit in with his m/c habitus by wearing a tracksuit on non-uniform day but instead was made to feel worthless by the school’s m/c habitus- symbolic violence.
26
What did Evans find regarding class identity and self exclusion?
Evans studied a group of 21 w/c girls from a London comprehensive school and found that they were reluctant to apply to elite universities like Oxbridge and the few who did apply felt a sense of hidden barriers and not fitting in.
27
Name the three aspects of the cultural deprivation theory as an explanation for ethnic differences in achievement.
1. Intellectual and linguistic skills
2. Attitudes and values
3. Family structure and parental support
28
How do intellectual and linguistic skills contribute to ethnic differences in achievement? What is a critique of the ideas presented?
- CD theorists argue that children from low income black families lack intellectual stimulation, leaving them poorly equipped for school.
- BEREITER & ENGELMANN say that the language spoken by these families is inadequate for educational success as it is ungrammatical, disjointed and incapable of expressing abstract ideas.
x However, statistics show that in 2010, pupils with English as their first language were only 3.2 points ahead of pupils without English as their first language when it came to attaining 5 A*-C grades at gcse.
29
How do attitudes and values contribute to ethnic differences in achievement?
CD theorists see lack of motivation as a cause of the failure of black children because they are socialised into a subculture that instils a fatalistic ‘live for today’ attitude that doesn’t value education and leaves them unequipped for success.
30
How does family structure and parental support contribute to ethnic differences in achievement? What are critiques/supports of these ideas?
- MOYNIHAN: black families are headed by a lone mother which means their children are deprived of adequate care and boys lack a role model.
x DRIVER: the black caribbean family is far from dysfunctional and it provides girls with a positive role model of an independent woman; which is why black girls do better at school than black boys.
- PRYCE: Asians achieve higher because their culture is more resistant to racism. Black caribbeans are less resistant to racism and achieve lower due to low self esteem.
x LAWRENCE: says that black pupils don’t fail because of a weak culture and low self esteem but because of racism.
- SEWELL: lack of a father figure means black boys find it hard to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence so they turn to street gangs. An interview found that black boys saw peer pressure as the biggest barrier to their educational success.
x GILLBORN: it’s not peer pressure but institutional racism which makes black boys fail.
- SEWELL
Indian and Chinese pupils benefit from supportive families that have an ‘Asian work ethic’ and place a high value on education.
+ LUPTON: adult authority in asian families is similar to that in schools, with respectful behaviour towards adults having a knock on effect in school.
- MCCULLOCH: white pupils often underachieve and have lower aspirations. A survey of 16000 pupils found that ethnic minority pupils are more likely to aspire to go to university than white British pupils.
+ EVANS: school can become a place where the power games that young white students engage in on the street are played out again, bringing disruption and making educational success harder.
- Compensatory education has been developed to tackle CD. eg operation head start
x Critcs of compensatory education say it is an attempt to impose white culture on students who have a culture of their own. They propose two alternatives:
1. multicultural education
2. anti-racist education
x Keddie criticises cultural deprivation theory as a whole and says it’s a victim-blaming explanation. EM children are culturally different not culturally deprived and they underachieve because the education system is ethnocentric.
31
What are some of the statistics regarding material deprivation for ethnic minorities? What are some of the reasons for this?
PALMER:
- 1/2 of EMs live in low income households compared to 1/4 white kids
- EMs are 2x as likely to be unemployed than whites
- EM households are 3x as likely to be homeless
- 1/2 of Bangladeshi and Pakistani workers earn under £7/hour compared to 1/4 of white british workers
Reasons:
- Living in economically depressed areas
- Lack of language skills
- Asylum seekers may not be allowed to take work
- Racial discrimination
32
How does racism in wider society contribute to ethnic differences in achievement?
- MASON: discrimination is a continuing and persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s EM citizens
- REX: racial discrimination leads to social exclusion and worsens the poverty that EMs deal with
- WOOD et al: sent 3 closely matched job applications to 1000 job vacancies using names associated with different ethnic groups (1 from a ‘white’ person , 2 from ‘minority groups’). They found that
1/16 ‘EM’ applications were offered a job compared to 1/9 ‘white’ applications
33
Summarise labelling and teacher racism as an internal factor affecting ethnic differences in achievement.
- GILLBORN AND YOUDELL: teachers disciplined black pupils for the same behaviour as other students because of racialised expectations where they expect black pupils to have behavioural issues.
- FOSTER: teachers stereotyping black pupils as badly behaved can lead to them being placed in lower streams and create a SFP of underachievement.
- WRIGHT’s study of a multi ethnic primary school found that teachers labelled asian pupils negatively. They felt isolated when teachers expressed disapproval of their customs or mispronounced their names.
34
Summarise pupil identities as an internal factor affecting ethnic differences in achievement.
ARCHER: identified 3 pupil identities:
- Ideal pupil identity
white, m/c, masculine, normal sexuality, achieve the ‘right’ way through natural ability
- Pathologised pupil identity
Asian, ‘deserving poor’, feminine, asexual or oppressed sexuality, conformist over-achiever who achieved through hard work
- Demonised pupil identity
black/white, w/c, hyper sexualised identity, dumb, peer-led, culturally deprived underachiever
ARCHER AND FRANCIS: teachers view chinese pupils with a ‘negative positive stereotype’. Even though they are successful, they are seen as achieving success in the wrong way so they can never legitimately occupy the ideal pupil identity.
35
What did Fuller’s study find about rejecting negative labels?
The study involved a group of black girls in a year 11 comprehensive school. They:
- were high achievers
- channeled their anger about being labelled into pursuit of educational success
- only conformed as far as schoolwork and relied on their own efforts
- regarded teachers as racist and didn’t seek their approval
- were friends with black girls from lower streams
The study shows that pupils may still succeed when they refuse to conform and that negative labelling doesn’t always lead to failure.
36
What did Mac an Ghaill find about rejecting negative labels?
The study involved black and asian A-Level students. Students didn’t accept negative labels and how they responded was based on factors like their ethnicity, gender and the nature of their previous schools. This shows that labels don’t inevitably produce a SFP.
37
Explain the three types of teacher racism identified by Mirza
1. The colour blind
Teachers who believe all students are equal but allow racism to go unchallenged
2. The liberal chauvinists
Teachers who believe black students are culturally deprived and have low expectations of them
3. The overt racists
Believe black people are inferior and actively discriminate
38
What are the four pupil responses identified by Sewell?
1. Conformists
Majority, keen to succeed, accept the schools’ goals and don’t want to be stereotyped.
2. Innovators
Second largest group, pro-education, anti-school, conformed as far as school work but didn’t seek teacher approval, distanced from conformists but had credibility with rebels
3. Rebels
Most influential and visible, minority, excluded and rejected school goals, conformed to the ‘black macho lad’, contemptuous of white boys and dismissive of conformist black boys
4. Retreatists
Minority, disconnected from both school and black subcultures, despised by rebels
39
Evaluate labelling and pupil responses (ethnicity)
- Labelling theory sees stereotypes as a result of the prejudices of individual teachers but Marxists would say it should be seen as a result of racism in the education system as a whole
- It’s wrong to assume that once labelled, pupils automatically fall victim to the SFP and fail, which Fuller shows isn’t always the case
40
What is the difference between individual racism and institutional racism?
TROYNA AND WILLIAMS:
- individual racism results from the prejudiced views of individual teachers and others
- institutional racism is discrimination that is built into the way institutions operate
41
What is the critical race theory?
CRT sees racism as an ingrained feature of society. GILLBORN uses the locked in inequality concept to explain that ethnic inequality is so deep rooted and large that it’s an inevitable feature of the education system.
42
What are the 5 key ways in which the education system is racist, as explained by Gillborn?
1. Marketisation and segregation
GILLBORN says that because marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils, it allows negative stereotypes to influence decisions about school admissions.
2. The ethnocentric curriculum
Ethnocentrism describes the attitude or policies that give priority to the culture and viewpoint of one ethnic group. Examples include:
- Languages, literature and music
TROYNA AND WILLIAMS: there is meagre provision for teaching asian languages compared to european languages
- History
COARD says the image of black people as inferior in history undermined black children’s self esteem and leads to their failure
x STONE argues that black children don’t suffer from low self esteem
3. Assessment
The assessment game was rigged by replacing baseline tests with the foundation stage profile which made black pupils appear to be doing worse than white pupils.
4. Access to opportunities
- The gifted and talented programme was created to meet the needs of more able pupils but GILLBORN argues that official stats show whites are 2x more likely than blacks to be identified as gifted and talented.
- TIKLY et al found that blacks were more likely than whites to be entered for lower tier gcse exams despite the ‘aiming high’ initiative aimed at raising the achievement of black caribbean students.
5. The new IQism
GILLBORN argues that teachers and policy makers make false assumptions about the nature of pupils’ ability and use IQ tests to allocate pupils to different streams on entry. They say that there is no genuine measure for potential and tests can’t tell us anything about the future.
43
What are the criticisms of Gillborn’s ideas about institutional racism?
x black boys’ underachievement
SEWELL argues that racism isn’t powerful enough to prevent individuals from succeeding and we need to focus on external factors
x model minorities: indian and chinese achievement
If there was institutional racism in the education system, how come indian and chinese students perform better than the white majority?
44
What are some statistics about the gender gap in achievement?
- on starting school
in 2013, at the end of year one, girls were ahead of boys by 7-17% in all subjects
- at key stages 1-3
girls do consistently better than boys, especially in english
- at gcse
the gender gap is about 10%
- at AS and A level
girls are more likely to sit, pass and get higher grades than boys
- on vocational courses
more girls achieve distinctions in every subject
45
Explain the 4 external factors affecting gender differences in achievement.
1. The impact of feminism
The feminist movement has improved women’s rights and challenged traditional stereotypes of women as housewives. MCROBBIE studied magazines which used to emphasise marriage but now focus on women’s independence.
2. Changes in the family
- increases in divorce rate
- increase in lone parent families
- increase in cohabitation
- smaller families
have all affected girls attitudes towards education.
3. Changes in women’s employment
- the gender pay gap has gone from 30% to 15% since 1975
- 1970 equal pay act
- 1975 sex discrimination act
- women are breaking through the glass ceiling
- the number of employed women has risen from 53% to 67%
4. Girls’ changing ambitions
SHARPE: in 1974, girls were unambitious and saw education as unfeminine. By the 1990s, girls prioritised careers and independence.
46
Explain equal opportunities policies as an internal factor affecting gender differences in achievement.
Feminist ideas have made people believe that boys and girls are entitled to equal opportunities. This has led to policies like GIST and WISE which encourage girls to pursue non traditional careers.
BOALER: these policies have removed barriers to girls’ achievement no made schools more meritocratic.
47
Explain positive role models as an internal factor affecting gender differences in achievement.
There are more female teachers and heads who act as role models for girls. Teachers respond more positively to girls than to boys, creating a SFP of achievement.
48
Explain GCSE and coursework as an internal factor affecting gender differences in achievement.
MITSOS & BROWNE: girls spend more time on their work, take more care with presentation, are better at meeting deadlines and bring the right equipment to lessons. They therefore benefit from doing coursework.
x ELWOOD: coursework isn’t the only factor because exams have more influence on final grades
49
Explain teacher attention as an internal factor affecting gender differences in achievement.
FRANCIS: boys got more attention from teachers than girls because they were picked on more and disciplined more harshly due to teachers’ low expectations of them.
50
Explain challenging stereotypes in the curriculum as an internal factor affecting gender differences in achievement.
WEINER: Teachers have challenged stereotypes which have removed barriers to girls’ achievement by presenting them with more positive models of what girls can do.
51
Explain selection and league tables as an internal factor affecting gender differences in achievement.
- Marketisation policies create competition where schools desire girls because they get good grades.
- JACKSON: high achieving girls are attractive to schools while low achieving boys aren’t. This gives girls a SFP of achievement.
52
How do liberal feminists view girls achievement?
They celebrate the progress so far and believe more progress will be made by
- having more equal opportunities policies
- encouraging positive role models
- overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes
53
How do radical feminists view girls achievement?
They emphasise patriarchy in the education system such as
- sexual harassment of girls
- limiting girls’ subject/career choices
- male teachers more likely to be heads
- underrepresentation of women in the curriculum
54
Explain Archer’s views about symbolic capital ( gender )
Symbolic capital is the status, recognition and sense of worth we obtain from others. In her study of w/c girls, they performed their feminine identities to gain symbolic capital from their peers but were unable to gain educational or economic capital.
55
What did Archer say the 3 strategies are for w/c girls to create a valued sense of self?
1. Hyper heterosexual feminine identities
The girls spent time, effort and money into their looks to gain status from peers. But this created conflict from the school which led to symbolic violence. The school’s ideal female pupil has a desexualised m/c identity.
2. Boyfriends
It brought symbolic capital but got in the way of schoolwork and lowered girls’ aspirations.
3. Being loud
Some w/c girls were outspoken, independent and assertive. This brought conflict with teachers who saw them as aggressive rather than assertive.
56
What is the dilemma for w/c girls?
The struggle between gaining symbolic capital from peers or gaining educational capital from the school. Archer says the w/c feminine identity and educational success conflict with one another. Investing in the identity leads to underachievement.
57
Explain the two external factors affecting boys’ achievement.
- boys and literacy
DCSF: boys have poorer literacy and language skills due to reasons like parents not reading to their sons as much and when they do it’s mums who do it so boys see it as feminine. They also like to play football which doesn’t help linguistically unlike girls who stay indoors and talk to friends.
- globalisation and the decline of traditional men’s jobs
Globalisation has led to the decline of heavy industries which have relocated to developing countries. MITSOS AND BROWNE: say this decline has led to an identity crisis for men. Boys don’t believe they will get a proper job so they lose motivation and stop aiming for qualifications.
58
Explain the feminisation of education as an internal factor affecting boys’ achievement.
SEWELL:
- schools don’t nurture masculine traits but instead celebrate feminine qualities
- coursework should be replaced with exams and there should be more outdoor activities in the curriculum
59
Explain the shortage of male primary school teachers as an internal factor affecting boys’ achievement
YOUGOV: 39% of 8-11 year old boys have no lessons with a male teacher. A survey showed that the presence of a male teacher made boys behave better and made 42% of boys work harder.
Some say this is because many female teachers can’t control boys’ behaviour and male teachers are better at disciplining them.
60
Explain Read’s critique about the idea of male teachers being more effective than female teachers.
Read identifies two types of discourse used by teachers:
- disciplinarian discourse
authority is explicit and visible. Associated with male teachers.
- liberal discourse
authority is implicit and invisible. Pseudo-adultification; talking to the child like they are an adult. Associated with female teachers.
Read’s study found most teachers used the disciplinary discourse regardless of gender. This shows that the claim about schools becoming feminised isn’t true and male teachers aren’t the only ones who can discipline boys.
61
Explain laddish subcultures as an internal factor affecting boys’ achievement
- EPSTEIN: if w/c boys appear to be swots they are labelled, harassed and subjected to homophobic abuse
- FRANCIS: boys are more concerned than girls about being labelled as swots because it threatens their masculinity. They reject schoolwork to avoid being called gay.
62
What is the moral panic about boys?
RINGROSE: there is a panic about failing boys caused by a fear that underachieving boys will grow up to become dangerous and unemployable. This creates policies which are focused on boys’ achievement. These have negative effects:
1. it ignores disadvantaged w/c and EM girls
2. it ignores other problems girls face in school.
63
Explain gender role socialisation as an explanation of gender differences in subject choices.
Gender role socialisation is the process of learning the behaviour expected of males and females in society.
- NORMAN: from an early age, boys and girls dress differently, are given different toys and are encouraged to take part in different activities.
- ELWOOD: boys and girls develop different hobbies in reading as a result such as girls reading books about people and boys reading hobby books.
64
What are gender domains?
The tasks that boys and girls see as part of male or female territory.
BROWNE & ROSS: children’s beliefs about gender domains are shaped by their early experiences and the expectations of adults. They are more confident when engaging in activities that are part of their gender domain.
65
Explain gendered subject images as an explanation of gender differences in subject choices.
The gender image of a subject affects who will want to choose it.
KELLY: science is seen as a boys’ subject because science teachers are mainly men, their examples draw on boys’ interests and boys dominate the lab.
66
What is the impact of single sex schooling on subject choice according to Leonard?
Girls in all girls’ schools were more likely to take maths and science A-Levels while boys in boys’ schools were more likely to take english and languages
67
Explain gender identity and peer pressure as an explanation of gender differences in subject choices.
Peer pressure influences gender identity and how pupils see themselves in relation to particular subjects
PAECHTER: because sport is seen as being in the male gender domain, girls who do sport have an image that is different to the female stereotype which makes them more likely than boys to opt out of sport.
68
Explain gendered career opportunities as an explanation of gender differences in subject choices.
Employment is gendered and sex typed as ‘men’s’ or ‘women’s’. This affects girls’ and boys’ ideas about what kinds of jobs are possible or acceptable.
69
Explain gender, vocational choice and class
W/c pupils may make decisions about vocational courses that are based on a traditional sense of gender identity. FULLER studied w/c girls who wanted to go into childcare or beauty based careers which reflected their w/c habitus. The school implicitly steers girls towards certain types of jobs based on the work experience placements that are offered to them.
70
What is hegemonic masculinity according to Connell?
The dominance of heterosexual masculine identity and the subordination of female and gay identities.
71
Explain double standards as a way pupil identities reinforce their gender and sexual identities.
These exist when we apply one set of moral standards to one group but another set to a different group.
LEES: boys boast about their sexual experiences but girls are called slags for dressing or speaking in certain ways.
Feminists see double standards as a patriarchal ideology that justifies male power and devalues women.
72
Explain verbal abuse as a way pupil identities reinforce their gender and sexual identities.
PAECHTER: name calling shapes gender identity and maintains male power. The use of negative labels like ‘gay’ allows pupils to police each other’s sexual identities.
73
Explain the male gaze as a way pupil identities reinforce their gender and sexual identities.
MAC AN GHAILL: the male gaze is the way male pupils and teachers see girls as sexual objects amd making judgements about their appearance. It is a form of surveillance which reinforces heterosexual masculinity and devalues femininity. Boys who don’t display their heterosexuality this way risk being called gay.
74
Explain male peer groups as a way pupil identities reinforce their gender and sexual identities.
REDMAN AND MAC AN GHAILL: the dominant definition of masculine identity changes from that of the macho lads in the lower school to the real englishmen in the sixth form. This shows a shift away from a w/c definition based on toughness to a m/c one based on intellectual ability.
75
Explain female peer groups as a way pupil identities reinforce their gender and sexual identities.
RINGROSE: studied 13-14 year old w/c girls’ peer groups and found that as they transitioned from a girls’ friendship culture into a heterosexual dating culture they faced a tension between
- an idealised feminine identity of loyalty, non-competitiveness and getting along with everyone
- a sexualised identity involving competing for boys
CURRIE ET AL: dating leads to symbolic capital but
- girls seen as competitive risk being slut shamed
- girls who don’t compete risk being frigid shamed
Shaming is therefore a social control device to discipline each other’s identities.
76
Explain teacher discipline as a way pupil identities reinforce their gender and sexual identities.
ASKEW & ROSS: male teachers’ behaviour can reinforce messages about gender such as being protective towards female colleagues, which reinforces dominant definitions of gender identity.
77
What is the tripartite system?
The 1944 Education act brought the tripartite system where the 11+ would allocated children into one of three types of schools:
- grammar schools for those who passed. offers access to non manual jobs and higher education. mainly m/c
- secondary modern schools for those who didn’t pass. offers access to manual work. mainly w/c
- technical schools which only existed in a few areas
78
How did the tripartite system reproduce and legitimate class inequality ?
The system
1. reproduced class inequality by putting the two social classes into two different types of schools
2. legitimated inequality through the ideology that ability is innate
79
What is the comprehensive school system?
An attempt to overcome the class divide of the tripartite system and make education more meritocratic by banning grammar schools, secondary moderns and the 11+ and replacing them with comprehensives for all children in the area to attend.
However many areas still have the grammar-secondary modern divide.
80
What are the functionalist and marxist ideas about comprehensive schools?
- Functionalists say comprehensive schools
1. promote social integration by bringing children of different social classes together
2. are more meritocratic by giving pupils a longer period to develop and show their abilities unlike the 11+ which makes them do this early on.
Marxists say that comprehensives aren’t meritocratic and they
1. reproduce class inequality across generations by continuing to practice streaming and labelling
2. legitimate class inequality by appearing to offer equal chances to all. This myth of meritocracy makes unequal achievement seem fair and just, blaming it on the individual rather than the system.
81
What is marketisation?
The process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state.
82
How has marketisation created an education market?
- it reduces direct state control over education
- it increases competition between schools and parental choice of school
83
Which law brought in the marketisation of education?
1988 Education Reform Act (ERA)
84
What are examples of policies to promote marketisation?
- publication of league tables and ofsted reports
- business sponsorship of schools
- open enrolment
- specialist schools
- formula funding
- schools being allowed to opt out of local authority control
- schools having to compete to attract pupils
- tuition fees
- allowing parents and others to set up free schools
85
What is parentocracy as defined by David?
Rule by parents. Power shifts from producers (teachers and schools) to the consumers (parents).
86
What is a criticism of marketisation raised by Ball and Whitty?
Marketisation policies reproduce class inequality by creating inequalities between schools.
87
What is the purpose of league tables?
To ensure that schools that achieve good results are more in demand, since parents will be more attracted to high ranking schools.
88
What are the two things league tables encourage, according to Bartlett?
- cream skimming
good schools select the high achieving mainly middle class pupils
- silt shifting
good schools avoid taking less able pupils who are likely to get bad results and damage the reputation of the school.
89
What is the funding formula?
Schools are allocated funds based on how many pupils they attract.
- popular schools get more funds which they can use to increase their popularity such as having better facilities, therefore attracting ambitious m/c students
- unpopular schools lose income and find it hard to match the facilities of their rivals so fail to attract pupils and have their funding further reduced.
90
Summarise Gewirtz’ study into parental choice
She studied 14 london secondary schools and identified three types of parents:
- privileged-skilled choosers
they were professional, m/c and used their economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children. They knew how they education system worked and had the funds for their child to go to the best school.
- disconnected-local choosers
w/c parents whose choices were restricted by their lack of economic and cultural capital. Can’t understand school admissions and were less confident, aware and able to manipulate the system to their advantage. They had low funds which restricted their choice of school.
- semi- skilled choosers
were mainly w/c but ambitious for their children. However they also lacked cultural and economic capital and had to rely on other people’s opinions about schools, causing them frustration.
91
What is the myth of parentocracy?
BALL says that marketisation makes it appear as though all parents have the same freedom in choice of school however, middle class parents are better able to take advantage of the choices available. This myth of parentocracy legitimates class inequality.
92
What are some new labour policies aimed at reducing inequality?
- designating deprived areas as education action zones and giving them extra resources
- the aim higher programme to raise the aspirations of under-represented groups
- Education Maintenance Allowances
- National Literacy Strategy
- City academies
- Increased funding for state education
93
How does Benn critique new labour policies?
She says there is a contradiction between their policies to tackle inequality and its commitment to marketisation - the new labour paradox.
For example, despite introducing EMAs, there are alao tuition fees which may deter pupils from going to university.
94
Explain academies as one of the coalition government policies introduced in 2010.
From 2010, all schools were encouraged to leave local authority control and become academies. Funding was taken from local authority budgets and given directly to academies. They also had control over their curriculum.
x By allowing any school to become an academy, the focus was taken away from reducing inequality.
95
Explain free schools as one of the coalition government policies introduced in 2010.
Free schools are set up and run by parents, teachers, faith organisations or businesses rather than the local authority. This gives parents the opportunity to create a new school if they are unhappy with the state schools in their local area.
96
What are some criticisms of the introduction of free schools?
- ALLEN: research from sweden, where 20% of the schools are free schools, shows that they only benefit children from highly educated families.
- Free schools are socially divisive and lower standards
- Charter schools in the USA are similar to free schools but have been criticised for using strict pupil selection and exclusion policies.
- In england, free schools take less disadvantaged pupils than nearby schools.
97
What is fragmented centralisation?
Ball says that promoting academies and free schools has led to an increase in:
- fragmentation
the comprehensive system is being replaced by a patchwork of diverse provision, leading to greater inequality in opportunities
- centralisation
the central government alone has the power to allow or require schools to become academies or allow free schools to be set up.
98
What are the two policies from the coalition government aimed at reducing inequality?
- free school meals
- pupil premium
99
What are critiques of the coalition governments policies aimed at reducing inequality?
- Ofsted found that in many cases, pupil premium wasn’t spent on those it was supposed to help; only 1 in 10 head teachers said it had changed how disadvantaged students were supported.
- The coalition government cut spending on school buildings, sure start centres and EMAs while also tripling uni tuition fees. This reduced opportunities for w/c pupils.
100
What is the privatisation of education?
The transfer of public assets like schools to private companies. Education becomes a source of profit for capitalists in what BALL calls the ‘education services industry’
101
How do privatisation and globalisation link?
Many private companies in the education services industry (ESI) are foreign owned. For example, the exam board Edexcel is owned by the US educational publishing and testing giant Pearson. This makes nation-states less important in policy making, which is shifting to a global level and becoming privatised.
102
What is the cola-isation of schools?
The idea that the private sector is penetrating education indirectly such as through vending machines on school premises.
MOLNAR: schools are targeted by private companies because they carry enormous goodwill by nature and confer legitimacy on anything associated with them. Schools are therefore a product endorsement.
103
Do schools and pupils benefit from cola-isation?
No. BEDER found that UK families spent £110,000 in tesco supermarkets in return for a single computer in schools.
104
How is education a commodity?
Policy is becoming focused on moving educational services out of the public sector to be provided by private companies instead. Education is therefore being turned into a legitimate object of private profit-making; a commodity to be bought and sold in an education market.
105
Why are the New right critical of the role of the state? What do they suggest as a solution to these problems? (policy in education)
The New Right say that the state’s involvement in education leads to bureaucratic self interest, the stifling of initiative and low standards. To overcome these problems, the education system must be marketised. There are two types of marketisation:
1. an internal market within the state education system
2. the privatisation of state education
106
What policies have been made to tackle gender differences in achievement? (policy)
policies like GIST and WISE have been introduced
107
Explain assimilation as a policy aimed at tackling ethnic differences in achievement. (policy)
Assimilation policies focused on the need for ethnic pupils to assimilate into mainstream british culture to raise their achievement. This includes helping them to learn english.
108
What is a critique of assimilation policies aimed at raising ethnic children’s achievement? (policy)
Minority groups who are at risk of underachieving already speak english and the real cause of their underachievement lies in poverty or racism.
109
Explain multicultural education (MCE) as a policy aimed at tackling ethnic differences in achievement. (policy)
MCE policies aimed to value all cultures in the school curriculum, therefore raising their self esteem and in turn raising their achievement.
110
What are critiques of multicultural education (MCE) as a policy aimed at raising ethnic children’s achievement? (policy)
- STONE: black pupils don’t fail because of lack of self esteem
- MCE is mere tokenism and fails to tackle institutional racism
- The new right say education should promote a shared culture and identity into which minorities should be assimilated, rather than perpetuating cultural divisions.
111
Explain social inclusion as a policy aimed at tackling ethnic differences in achievement. (policy)
These policies include
- detailed monitoring of exam results by ethnicity
- amending the race relations act to place a legal duty on schools to promote racial equality
- voluntary saturday schools in the black community
- english as an additional language programme
112
What are critiques of social inclusion policies aimed at raising ethnic children’s achievement? (policy)
- MIRZA: instead of tackling the structural causes of ethnic inequality, educational policy takes a soft approach which focuses on culture, behaviour and the home.
- GILLBORN: institutionally racist policies still continue to disadvantage minority ethnic groups
113
What are the two functions of education according to Durkheim?
1. Social solidarity
Uniting all members into one community through shared values.
2. Specialist skills
Education teaches individuals the specialist knowledge and skills that they need to play their part in the social division of labour.
114
What does Parsons say about meritocracy?
- Parsons says the school is a focal socialising agency, a bridge between the family and wider society.
- In the family children have ascribed status and are judged by particularistic standards whereas in the education system, children achieve their status and are judged by universalistic standards.
- School is based on meritocratic principles, where everyone is given an equal opportunity and individuals achieve rewards through their own effort and ability.
115
What do Davis and Moore say about role allocation?
They see education as a device for selection and role allocation. They say inequality is necessary to make sure the most important roles in society are filled by the most talented people. Therefore education sifts and sorts us according to our abilities, giving the highest achievers entry to the most important and highly rewarded positions.
116
Evaluate the functionalist perspective of education.
- The wolf review of vocational education found that quality apprenticeships are rare and up to 1/3 of 16-19 year olds are on courses that don’t lead to high education or good jobs.
- Marxists argue that rather than instilling the values of society as a whole, the education system transmits the values of the ruling class.
- WRONG argues that functionalists have an over-socialised view of people as mere puppets of society and wrongly imply that pupils passively accept all that they are taught and never reject school values.
- New right theorists say that the state education system fails to adequately prepare young people for work.
117
What are similarities betweeen the new right and functionalism?
- they both believe some are naturally more talented than others
- they both favour meritocracy and competition
- they both believe pupils should be socialised into shared values
118
Why do Chubb and Moe say state run education has failed?
1. it hasn’t created equal opportunity and has failed the needs of disadvantaged groups
2. it fails to produce pupils with skills needed by the economy
3. they aren’t answerable to paying consumers (the parents)
119
What did Chubb and Moe find from comparing w/c pupils in state and private schools?
Pupils from low income families consistently do 5% better in private than in state schools.
120
How do Chubb and Moe propose the problems should be solved?
Introducing a market system in state education that puts control in the hands of the consumers. Each family should be given a voucher to spend on education to force schools to become responsive to their needs and attract customers by improving their product.
121
What two roles do the state perform , according to new right sociologists?
1. imposing a framework on schools within which they have to compete
2. ensuring that schools transmit a shared culture
122
Evaluate the new right perspective of education
- GEWIRTZ & BALL: competition between schools benefits the middle class who can use their cultural and economic capital to choose the best schools
- The cause of low educational standards isnt state control but social inequalities and inadequate funding of state schools
- There is a contradiction between the new rights’ support for parental choice and them imposing a compulsory national curriculum.
- Marxists say education imposes the culture of the dominant ruling class, devaluing working class culture
123
What are Althusser’s ideas about apparatuses?
- repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) maintain the rule of the bourgeoisie by force or the threat of it. Includes police, courts and army.
- ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) maintain the rule of the bourgeoisie by controlling people’s ideas values and beliefs. Includes religion, media and the education system.
124
What two functions does the education system perform as an ISA?
- it reproduces class inequality by transmitting it from generation to generation
- it legitimates class inequality by producing ideologies to disguise its true cause and making it appear inevitable and deserved.
125
What do Bowles and Gintis argue is the main function of the education system?
To reproduce an obedient workforce that will accept inequality as inevitable.
126
What did Bowles and Gintis find in their study about schooling in capitalist america?
They found that schools reward the personality traits that made for a submissive compliant worker. Their study of 237 NY high school students found that those who were independent and creative got low grades, while those who were obedient and disciplined got high grades.
127
What is the correspondence principle?
Parallels between school and the workplace. eg both are hierarchies with head teachers/bosses at the top.
128
What is the hidden curriculum?
The lessons that are learnt in school without being directly taught. eg accepting hierarchy and competition.
129
What do Bowles and Gintis say about the myth of meritocracy and the legitimation of class inequality?
- the education system legitimates class inequalities through ideologies that justify inequality as fair, natural and inevitable.
- meritocracy is a myth because the main factor behind having a high income is family and class background rather than ability or educational achievement. The myth of meritocracy disguises this fact and justifies the privileges of the higher classes, persuading the lower classes that inequality is legitimate and making it less likely that they will overthrow capitalism
- the education system also justifies poverty by blaming it on the individual rather than capitalism.
130
Explain Willis’ study about the lads
12 w/c boys formed a counter culture opposed to the school. They mock conformists and girls, find school boring and disobey and reject the rules and values of the school.
It is similar to the shop floor culture of male manual workers as both groups see manual work as superior and intellectual work as inferior and effeminate.
However, having gotten used to boredom and through their acts of rebellion, the boys are guaranteed to fail and enter the jobs that capitalism needs someone to perform.
131
Evaluate the marxist perspective of education
- Postmodernists argue that education reproduces diversity not inequality.
- Bowles and Gintis are deterministic in assuming that pupils have no free will and passively accept indoctrination.
- Willis’ study romanticises the working class boys as working class heroes despite their anti social behaviour and sexist attitudes. The results also won’t be representative since there were only 12 w/c boys
- Morrow & Torres say that sociologists should explain how education reproduces and legitimates all types of inequality, not just class.
- Macdonald is a feminist who says B&G ignore the fact that schools reproduce not just capitalism but patriarchy also.
