Education Flashcards

Question

Internal factors- ‘Nike’ identities

Answer 1

-consume branded clothing to construct class identities as an alt way of creating self-worth -styles policed by peer groups- right appearance earns symbolic capital + stopped bullying -but conflict with dress codes- as they reflect m/c habitus- labelled as rebels —Archer = m/c habitus stigmatises w/c pupils’ identities- believe their styles are a struggle for recognition + tasteless- but are a means of generating symbolic capital -part of rejection of higher education: —unrealistic (not for people like them, unaffordable/risky investment) —undesirable (doesn’t suit preferred lifestyle/habitus) -choose self-exclusion from education- actively choose to reject

Answer 2

-2 groups of w/c boys from deprived neighbourhood —1 passed 11+ & went to grammar school (m/c habitus), 1 failed & went to local 2ndary school (habitus of low expectations) -neighbourhood’s dense networks of family/friends were part of boys’ habitus- belonging- as well as street culture + branded sportswear -w/c communities = conformity - caused m/c boys to experience tension between habitus of w/c neighbourhood + m/c school

Answer 3

Evans: -studied A-level w/c girls from south London comprehensive -reluctant to apply to elite unis + those who did felt hidden barriers/not fitting in -strong attachment to locality- didn’t want to move away -self-exclusion from top education Link to Bourdieu- who says w/c people think Oxbridge etc ‘not for the likes of us’ - due to their habitus

Answer 4

Intellectual + linguistic skills: -minority children lack intellectual stimulation + enriching experiences -> poorly equipped -Bereiter + Engelmann -> language by low-income, black American families = inadequate for educational success- e.g. incapable expressing abstract ideas -evaluate that those with english not as 1st language don’t perform much worse (achieving 5 gcses)- 52% to 55.2% Attitudes + values -believe some black children are socialised into subculture = instils fatalistic, ‘live for today’ attitude- doesn’t value education Family structure + parental support -Moynihan = black children deprived of adequate care (due to mothers struggling financially) + boys lack adequate role model -> cycle of cultural deprivation -Murray = underachiever due to lone parenthood + lack of positive male role models

Answer 5

-black boys subject to anti-educational peer group pressure —lack of father nurturing + tough love —stuck with media role model of anti-school black masculinity -have a poor attitude to education- need aspirations raised

Answer 6

-Driver = says ignores positive effects of ethnicity on achievement- black Caribbean families provides girls with positive role models of strong independent women -Lawrence = black pupils under-achieve not because of low self-esteem but because of racism -Keddie = e/m children are culturally different, not culturally deprived

Answer 7

-McCulloch = survey shows e/m pupils > likely to aspire to go to uni -low aspirations due to lack of parental support -Lupton = teachers reported poorer behaviour + discipline in white w/c schools -> due to neg attitude white w/c parents had towards education

Answer 8

-Palmer = 1/2 e/m children live in low-income households, 1/4 white children, e/m households around 3x as likely to be homeless -due to racial discrimination, living in economically depressed areas, lack of language skills, foreign quals

Answer 9

-see black + Asian pupils as far from ‘ideal pupil’ -Gillborn + Youdell: —expected black pupils to present > discipline problems + saw behaviour as a challenge to authority/threatening —pupils responded negatively to teacher’s reactions -> further conflict —behaviour from racial stereotypes rather than actual behaviour Osler (2001) -black pupils > likely to suffer unrecorded unofficial exclusions + internal exclusions + being sent to pupil referral units Foster (1990) -teachers’ stereotypes of black pupils as badly behaved- place in lower sets than other pupils of similar ability —> SFP of underachievement

Answer 10

Wright (1992) -teachers had ethnocentric views -assumed Asian pupils would have poor grasp of English + left out of class discussions/simplified for them -teachers saw them as a problem they could ignore -> marginalised

Answer 11

Archer- creation of 3 dif pupil identities: -ideal pupil = achieving in the ‘right’ -pathologised pupil = plodding conformist + culture-bound over-achiever- succeeds through hard work not natural ability -demonised pupil = seen as unintelligent, peer-led, culturally deprived under-achiever —black students demonised as loud, challenging + unaspirational home cultures —Asian students seen as pathologised pupil Archer + Francis = Chinese students achieve success in the wrong way- can’t be the ideal pupil -> teachers see them as ‘negative positive stereotype’

Answer 12

-studied black girls who were high achievers where most black girls were placed in low streams -channelled anger for educational success + believed teachers were racist so didn’t seek their approval -positive attitude to academic success but didn’t really stick to school’s ideas —e.g. conformed only as far as schoolwork + lack of concern about school routines -therefore able to maintain positive self-image + didn’t accept the negative stereotype of them (rejected labels)

Answer 13

-found racist teachers discouraged black pupils from being ambitious through advice they gave them -3 main types of teacher racism: —colour-blind = believe all pupils are equal but allow racism to go unchallenged —liberal chauvinists = believe black pupils are culturally deprived -> low expectations —overt racists = believe blacks are inferior + actively discriminate —girls tried to avoid teachers’ negatives attitudes- actively avoid teachers, do their work without taking part —but this restricts their opportunities

Answer 14

Responses of black boys to school + racist stereotyping from teachers: 1. rebels = rejected goals + rules of their school- conform to stereotype of anti-authority + anti-school 2. conformists = accepted goals, not in subcultures, anxious to avoid stereotyping from teachers/peers 3. retreatists = disconnected from school + black subcultures- despised by rebels 4. innovators = pro-education but anti-school- didn’t seek teachers approval- school work only Teachers see all black boys are the rebels- even though only a small minority fit this stereotype

Answer 15

-shows how stereotypes can be cause of failure- doesn’t just blame home backgrounds -but sees stereotypes as product of individual teachers, not wider racism in education system -danger of assuming pupils’ automatically go to SFP

Answer 16

-racism = ingrained feature of society -> not just intentional individual actions- also institutional racism -Gillborn = ethnic inequality “so deep rooted and so large that it is a practically inevitable feature of education system”

Answer 17

-neg stereotypes can influence admission decisions (Gillborn) —Moore + Davenport = procedures mean minority pupils fail to get into better 2ndary schools- e.g. process difficult for non-English speaking parents to understand ——ethnically stratified education system

Answer 18

-reflects the dominant culture -builds racial bias into schools + colleges -Troyna + Williams = lack of teaching Asian languages compared to European -David = National Curriculum is ‘specifically British’ - ignores non-European languages, literature + music -Ball = promotes attitude of ‘little Englandism’ - recreates past glories while ignoring history of black + Asian people -could lead to low self-esteem + underachievement due to dif culture

Answer 19

‘Gifted and Talented Programme’ -Gillborn = official stats show whites > 2x likely to be identified + 5x > likely than Black Africans Exam tiers -black students > likely to be entered for lower tier GCSEs due to being in lower sets- only a C at best

Answer 20

-Gillborn = teachers + policymakers make false assumptions about nature of pupils’ ability/potential -potential = fixed quality but Gillborn believes there’s no genuine measure- doesn’t show what they could do in the future -education system = institutionally racist - minority pupils are routinely disadvantages

Answer 21

(Can be used as evaluation point) -perform better than the white majority - therefore how can there be institutional racism Gillborn believes this performs ideological function -makes system seem fair/meritocratic- succeed as take opportunities offered -justifies failure of other minorities- they’re unable/unwilling due to ‘unaspirational home culture’ -ignores how ‘model minorities’ still suffer racism in schools

Answer 22

Impact of feminism -raised expectations + self-esteem -McRobbie’s study of magazines- 1970s = importance of getting married, now = assertive, independent women Changes in the family - > women being breadwinner- creates role model of financially independent woman -> need for good quals - > divorces = don’t want to rely on husband Changes in women’s employment -1970 EPA + 1975 SDA -pay gap halved since 1975 -women in employment risen- service sector + part-time work -breaking through glass ceiling —see future in paid work, rather than as housewives —provides incentives Girls’ changing ambitions -Sharpe = interviews in 1970s had low aspirations- educational success unfeminine + unattractive to be ambitious -1990s = wanted careers + to support themselves -link to Fuller’s study where girls wanted to create their own future + aimed for professional careers

Answer 23

-some w/c girls have gender-stereotyped aspirations -Reay = girls’ limited aspirations reflect limited job opportunities they believe they have available- but a traditional gender identity is attainable + gives status -Biggart = w/c girls > likely to face precarious position in labour market -> motherhood is only viable option for futures

Answer 24

Equal opportunities policies -e.g. GIST + WISE -> girls into careers into non-traditional areas -National Curriculum = same subjects so removed 1 source of gender inequality -school has become > meritocratic -> opportunity for girls Positive role models in schools - > proposition of female reachers + heads -> showing women in pos of importance (have had successful education) + non-traditional goals GCSE + coursework -intro of coursework = spike in girls’ achievement -Mitsos + Browne = girls > successful in coursework: spend more time, take more care, meet deadlines, bring right materials to lessons -girls better due to gender role socialisation in family -but Elwood = coursework has some influence but exams have > influence on final grades Teacher attention -Swann = girls prefer pair-work + group-work- they listen + cooperate - girls take turns —teachers respond > positively -> SFP (promote self-esteem + raise achievement levels) Challenging stereotypes in curriculum -Weiner = since 1980s teachers have challenged stereotypes + sexist images have been removed from learning materials -> raises achievement Selection and league tables -girls = desirable recruits as > exam results -Jackson = league tables means high-achieving girls are attractive + this creates SFP -boys seen as liability

Answer 25

Liberal: -celebrate progress -further progress will be made by overcoming attitudes + improving policy Radical: -system remains patriarchal —e.g. sexual harassment of girls at school, limiting subject choices, male teachers > likely to be 2ndary heads, women under-represented in many areas of curriculum e.g. history

Answer 26

Symbolic capital: -Archer = performing w/c feminine identities- gained symbolic capital -> conflict with school so lack of educational capital Hyper-heterosexual feminine identities: -invest time, effort + money -brought status from peer groups + avoided being ridiculed -but conflict with school for having wrong appearance- teachers saw it distracting from engaging with education —saw them < worthy of respect - symbolic violence Boyfriends = brings symbolic capital, but lowers aspirations (e.g. losing interest in uni), aspired to have local w/c jobs + have children Being ‘loud’ = w/c girls become outspoken, independent + assertive - didn’t conform to ideal identity of passive + submissive to authority

Answer 27

Dilemma of gaining symbolic capital or gaining educational capital -> conflict with one another —create ‘good underneath’ image to achieve self-worth Successful working-class girls -Evans = found w/c girls want to go to uni to increase earning power but to help their families —links to Skeggs’ who notes that caring is a crucial part of their identity -limited market value + choice of uni due to economic necessity so living at home -> Archer = preference for local key part of w/c habitus -gender identity is a key part of their relative lack of success compared to m/c girls —due to self-exclusion

Answer 28

-DCSF : gender gap = result of boys’ poorer literacy + language skills —parents spend < time reading to sons + mothers do > reading (seen as feminine) —girls develop bedroom culture centred on staying in + talking with friends

Answer 29

-globalisation = manufacturing has relocated for cheap labour —which mainly employed men -Mitsos + Browne = decline in male employment opportunities led to an ‘identity crisis for men’ -> undermines motivation + self-esteem -but they’re w/c/manual jobs -> therefore maybe shouldn’t impact on motivation to obtain quals

Answer 30

-Sewell = boys fall behind as education has become ‘feminised’ -> schools don’t nurture masculine traits (competitiveness/leadership) -Coursework is also a cause of underachievement -only 14% primary school teachers = male -> female teachers can’t control boys behaviour- male teachers better to impose discipline boys need to concentrate —but evaluate: Read = found female teachers also use disciplinarian discourse (authority made explicit/visible) meaning that the primary school hasn’t become completely feminised

Answer 31

Epstein = found w/c boys likely to be harassed + subject to homophobic verbal abuse if appear to be ‘swots’ Francis = boys > concerned than girls about being labelled as swots by peers- threat to their masculinity —schoolwork seen as inferior- not being tough through manual work ——laddish culture = increasingly widespread- as girls moving into traditionally masculine areas of careers

Answer 32

-fear that underachieving w/c boys- grow up to become dangerous, unemployable underclass that threatens social stability -caused shift in educational policy: —narrowed equal ops policy down- ignores disadvantaged w/c + minority ethnic pupils —focuses on achievement gaps so ignores problems girls face in schools Osler = underachieving boys -> neglect of girls —as girls disengage quietly

Answer 33

-girls + boys choose dif- e.g. within design technology -A Levels = boys choose maths/physics, girls choose sociology, English —mirrored at university (importance of GIST/WISE etc) -gender segregation noticeable in vocational courses e.g. 1/100 childcare apprentices = boy

Answer 34

Gender role socialisation -Norman = early age- dressed/toys/activities different -Byrne = teachers encourage boys to be tough/not weak, girls expected to be quiet/tidy/helpful -Murphy + Elwood = boys read info/hobby books, girls read stories about people -Browne + Ross = ‘gender domains’ shaped by experiences/expectations of adults- > confident engaging in tasks within their gender domain Gendered subject image -Kelly = e.g. science seen as boys subject through teachers, examples of boys interests, boys dominate lab in lessons -Colley = computer studies male as taught off-putting for females e.g. few ops for group work -Evaluate: Leonard = girls in girls’ schools > likely to take maths/science A levels + boys > likely to take English/languages Gender identity + peer pressure -Paechter = pupils see sport as male- ‘sporty’ girls hav to cope with contradicting image with conventional stereotype -peer pressure = powerful influence on gender identity + how they see themselves in relation to particular subjects —explains why girls in girls’ schools > likely to choose boys’ subjects as < pressure to conform Gendered career opportunities -employment = highly gendered- women concentrated in narrow range of occupations -affects ideas of what jobs are possible/acceptable -shows why vocational courses > more gender-specific

Answer 35

Double standards -Lees = double standard of sexual morality- boys boast about sexual exploits, + girls called a ‘slag’ -> sexual conquest approved of/status by peers -patriarchal ideology that devalues women Verbal abuse -boys use name-calling to put girls down if they behave/dress -Parker = boys labelled gay for being friendly with girls/female teachers -function to reinforce gender norms/identities Male gaze -Mac an Ghaill = way male pupils + teachers look girls up + down -surveillance where dominant heterosexual masculinity is reinforced - boys who don’t risk being labelled gay Male peer groups -Mairtin Mac an Ghaill = w/c ‘macho lads’ dismissive of w/c boys who worked hard + aspired to m/c careers -Redman + Mac an Ghaill = dominant def of masculine identity changes from macho lads in lower school -> real Englishmen in 6th form (shift from w/c def to m/c based on intellectual ability) Female peer groups -Ringrose = girls faced tension between- idealised feminine identity (loyalty to peer groups + non-competitive) and sexualised identity (competing for boys) -Reay = girls who want educational success had to perform asexual identity + lack interest in boyfriends/fashion Teachers and discipline -Haywood + Mac an Ghaill = male teachers tell boys off for ‘behaving like girls’, ignore boys verbal abuse of girls + blame girls for attracting -Askew + Ross = male teachers protect female colleagues (e.g. ‘rescue’ them from threatening/disruptive pupils)- reinforces idea can’t cope alone

Answer 36

Social solidarity: -education transmits society’s culture from 1 gen to next- creates social solidarity -acts as ‘society in miniature’ - prepares us for life in wider society e.g. we have to cooperate with people who aren’t family/friends in both Specialist skills: -education teaches specialist knowledge/skills needed to play part in social division of labour -> enables everyone to perform their role

Answer 37

-school acts as bridge between family + wider society- e.g. school + wider society judge on universalistic standards whereas family judges on particularistic standards, a person’s status is achieved in society -school + wider society are based on meritocratic principles- everyone given equal opportunity + dif created on effort/ability

Answer 38

-education acts as proving ground for ability -most able gain highest quals -> entry to most important/highly rewarded positions -everyone competes for rewards to ensure most important roles are filled by most talented people

Answer 39

-can argue doesn’t teach specialist skills- e.g. high quality apprenticeships = rare -equal opportunity in education doesn’t exist -Tumin = Davis + Moore have a circular argument -Marxists = transmits ideology of the ruling-class -imply all pupils passively accept what they’re taught- some do reject school values -New Right = school fails to prepare young people adequately for work

Answer 40

-state education takes ‘one size fits all’ approach -consumers have no say —therefore = unresponsive + inefficient -believe in marketisation of education- competition increase schools’ efficiency -> better meet needs

Answer 41

-believe education failed needs of disadvantaged groups, doesn’t provide pupils with skills needed, private schools better as answerable to paying consumers -call for introduction of market system -> control in hands of consumers -believe in vouchers for families to buy education from school of their choice -> schools have to compete to attract customers —already in place in private education system

Answer 42

1. framework for schools to complete e.g. Ofsted inspection reports + league tables —gives informed choice for parents 2. ensures schools transmit shared culture —National Curriculum- socialise into single cultural heritage —education should affirm national identity -> single set of traditions/cultural values

Answer 43

-Gewirtz + Ball = competition benefits m/c - use capital to gain access -cause of low educational standards not state control but social inequality + inadequate funding -Marxists = imposes culture of minority ruling class + devalues smaller cultures e.g. w/c

Answer 44

-education system forms part of ISA- maintains bourgeoisie’s rule by controlling ideas/values/beliefs —reproduces class inequality- fails each generation of w/c pupils —legitimises class inequality- produces ideologies to disguise its true cause- accept inequality is inevitable so < likely to threaten capitalism

Answer 45

-relationships/structures found in education mirror/correspond to those of work - ‘correspondence principle’ —e.g. both hierarchies -operates through the hidden curriculum- lessons that are learnt without being directly taught —e.g. working for extrinsic rewards, accepting hierarchy -prepares pupils to be exploited workers of future- perpetuating class inequality from gen to gen -believe meritocracy doesn’t exist- e.g. main factor that decides if someone has high income is their family + class background -myth of meritocracy = serves to justify privileges of higher classes- makes them seem they succeeded through open/fair competition- < likely to overthrow capitalism

Answer 46

-Willis = w/c pupils can resist attempts to indoctrinate into myth of meritocracy -found the subculture of the lads- found school boring/meaningless so went against rules/values -identity strongly with male manual work- resistance to school helps them to slot into these jobs —don’t expect satisfaction from work due to finding school boring —acts of rebellion = will end up in unskilled jobs- failure to gain quals

Answer 47

-useful to expose ‘myth of meritocracy’ -postmodernists argue that education now reproduces diversity, not inequality + labour force needed now is different -Bowles + Gintis = deterministic- assume pupils passively accept indoctrination -Willis = takes a romanticising view, have anti-social behaviour but portrays them as w/c heroes -Morrow + Torres = criticise the ‘class first’ approach which sees class as key inequality + ignores rest —see non-class inequalities as equally important- have to explain how education reproduces + legitimises all forms of inequality -MacDonald = schools reproduce the patriarchy as well as capitalism

Answer 48

-children separated to 2ndary schools based on 11+ exam —grammar schools = academic curriculum, higher education, mainly m/c —2ndary modern schools = non-academic, practical curriculum, mainly w/c —technical schools = few areas only reproduced class inequality by channelling 2 social classes into 2 schools with different opportunities legitimised inequality with idea that ability is inborn

Answer 49

-from 1965 onwards -abolished old system to replace with comprehensive schools that all pupils in area = attend -many local authorities chose not to transition- so divide does still exist Functionalist view -they promote social integration- children of dif s/c together in 1 school - > meritocratic- longer time to show abilities Marxist view -reproduce class inequality through streaming/labelling- deny w/c = opportunity -legitimise class inequality = make unequal achievement seem fair/just

Answer 50

Process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state

Answer 51

David = marketised education is a parentocracy- power shifts to the parents who are consumers —parents have > choice, encourages diversity in schools + raises standards e.g. specialist schools, academies, free schools, league tables/Ofsted

Answer 52

Parents attracted to schools with good league table rankings -Bartlett: —cream-skimming = recruit high achieving, mainly m/c -> gain an advantage —silt-shifting = avoid taking less able pupils, likely to get poor results + damage league table position Opposite for those with poor league table positions - remain unattractive (cycle) —reproduces social class inequalities

Answer 53

-allocated money based on how many pupils -e.g. unpopular schools lose income + can’t match teachers/facilities of rivals —popular schools thrive + unpopular fall further behind Institute for Public Policy Research = competition-oriented education systems produce > segregation between children of dif social backgrounds

Answer 54

differences in economic/cultural capital leads to class differences in how much choice parents have 1. privileged-skilled choosers = professional m/c parents, use economic/cultural capital to gain educational capital for children —cultural = understand how systems work, visit/research schools —economic = move around/pay travel costs to attend best schools 2. disconnected-local choosers = w/c —lack cultural = difficult to understand procedures, < aware of choices/< able to manipulate system —lack economic = major restrictions- nearest school only realistic option 3. semi-skilled choosers = also mainly w/c but ambitious for children —lack cultural = hard to make sense of education market, rely on others opinions, frustrated to not get schools they want Therefore, m/c parents possess economic/cultural to have > choice + market is better for them

Answer 55

-Ball = marketisation gives appearance of ‘parentocracy’- appears all parents have same freedom to choose for their children —but m/c parents are better able to take advantage of choices e.g. moving into catchment areas -myth of parentocracy makes inequality in education appear fair and inevitable

Answer 56

-designating deprived areas as Education Action Zones- giving > resources -Education Maintenance Allowances- to encourage students from low-income backgrounds to stay on after 16 for > quals -National Literacy Strategy, literacy + numeracy hours, reducing primary school class sizes -city academies = give fresh start to struggling inner-city schools with > w/c pupils - > funding for state education Benn = contradiction between Labour’s policies to tackle inequality + commitment to marketisation (‘New Labour paradox’) - e.g. introduced EMAs but also introducing fees for higher education to deter uni

Answer 57

-strongly influenced by neoliberal + New Right ideas (marketisation + privatisation) Academies -encouraged to leave local authority control + become academies -given control over their curriculum -2017 = > 68% 2ndary schools -> academies -removed focus on < inequality as allowed any school to become academy Free schools -set up by parents, teacher, faith groups, businesses etc -supporters claim they improve standards- power to parents- gives opportunity to create new schools if unhappy with schools in local areas -Allen = research in Sweden shows free schools only benefit children from highly educated families, + international ranking has fallen since their introduction Fragmented centralisation (Ball) -fragmentation = > inequality in opportunities, due to comprehensive system being replaced by diverse provision with private providers -centralisation of control = power for academies/free schools- funded directly by central gov- reduced role of elected local authorities in education Policies to < inequality -Free school meals = all children R, Y1, Y2 -Pupil Premium = for each child from disadvantaged background —Ofsted = not spent on those it means to help -but due to ‘austerity’ programme- spending has been cut, e.g. many Sure Start centres closed, EMA abolished, 3x uni tuition fees

Answer 58

-many private companies in education services industry = foreign-owned, e.g. Edexcel owned by US company Pearson -Buckingham and Scanlon = Uk’s 4 leading educational software companies are owned by global multinationals -contracts for educational services sold on- often to overseas companies -some UK edu-businesses work overseas + private companies often export UK education policy overseas —> shift to a global level

Answer 59

-private sector indirectly penetrating education e.g. vending machines, developing brand loyalty -Molnar = schools targeted as they act as a product endorsement -but benefits = limited —Ball = Cadbury’s promotion was scrapped as revealed that pupils would have to eat 5,440 chocolate bars to qualify for set of volleyball posts

Answer 60

-Ball = privatisation becoming key factor shaping educational policy, increasingly being controlled by private companies -> education becoming a commodity to be bought + sold -state losing role as provider- education now subject to business practices + part of investment portfolios -Marxists e.g. Hall = academies way of handing public services to private capitalists -> use myth of it increasing standards to legitimise turning education into source for profit

Answer 61

-19th century = largely excluded from higher education -under tripartite system = girls had to achieve higher mark in 11+ for grammar school place -now introducing GIST/WISE etc - to < gender differences in subject choice

Answer 62

-Assimilation (60s/70s) = need for minorities to assimilate into mainstream culture, esp those without English as 1st language, e.g. through compensatory education —but material dep may be > cause underachievement -Multicultural education (80s/90s) = value all cultures in curriculum- to raise self-esteem + achievements —criticisms = fails to tackle institutional racism- picks out stereotypical features of cultures, New Right believe in assimilation -Social inclusion (late 90s) = monitoring of exam results by ethnicity, amending Race Relations Act to promote racial equality, english as an Additional Language programmes -but Mirza = sees little genuine change in policies- policy is taking a soft approach + needs to tackle structural causes -Gillborn = institutional racist policies, e.g. ethnocentric curriculum, continue to disadvantage ethnic minority groups

Education Flashcards

(86 cards)