Education: Gender

Question 1

What was education like for girls before the 1980s

Answer 1

-Limited and focused on domestic skills (e.g sewing, cooking)
-They were seen to have smaller brain than boys.
-Middle- and upper-class girls might attend finishing schools, but most working-class girls had little or no access to formal education.
-The patriarchal view was that women’s role was in the home, not in public or academic life.
-Universities didn’t accept female students until 1920s.

Question 2

External factors why girls have improved

Answer 2

-Impact of feminism
-Changes in the family
-Changes in the job market and women’s employment
-Girls changing attitudes and ambitions
-Girls mature earlier
-Differences in socialisation and behaviour

Question 3

Internal factors why girls have improved

Answer 3

-Equal opportunities policies
-Positive role models in schools
-GCSE and coursework
-Teacher attention and classroom interaction
-Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
-Selection and League tables

Question 4

What is feminism and how has it impacted girls’ education?

Answer 4

-Feminism is a social movement aiming for gender equality.
-Since the 1960s, it has challenged traditional female roles (e.g., housewives/mothers).

-This shift has raised girls’ ambitions and expectations around careers and education.
-Education is now seen by many girls as a route to independence.

Question 5

How have feminist campaigns influenced girls’ attitudes towards education?

Answer 5

-Raised awareness of gender inequality in home, work, and school.
-Promoted equal rights and challenged traditional roles.
-Encouraged girls to value education for independence and success, not just for preparing for domestic roles.

Question 6

What does Angela McRobbie’s research show about changing female aspirations?

Answer 6

-In the 1970s, emphasised marriage and avoiding being ‘left on the shelf’, promoting family orientated girls. -In the 1990s, they promoted images of confident, independent, career focused women.
-This reflects the influence of feminism, which has helped to raise girls aspirations, contributing to their higher achievement.

Question 7

How have changes in the family influenced girls’ achievement?

Answer 7

-Family structure changes have shifted girls’ attitudes toward education.
-These changes include rising divorce rates, more lone-parent families, and changing parenting styles.
-They encourage girls to value education for independence and career success.

Question 8

What key legislation helped expand women’s career opportunities in the 1970s?

Answer 8

The Equal Pay Act (1970) and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975) — made it illegal to pay women less than men for the same work and outlawed workplace discrimination.

Question 9

How has the gender pay gap changed since the 1970s?

Answer 9

It has halved — from around 30% in 1975 to around 15%

Question 10

How has the job market changed in ways that benefit women?

Answer 10

Decline of male-dominated industries (e.g. manufacturing) and growth in the service sector, which values communication and interpersonal skills. More part-time and flexible work opportunities.

Question 11

How has female employment changed since 1971?

Answer 11

The proportion of women in employment increased from 53% (1971) to 67% (2013).

Question 12

What is the ‘glass ceiling’ and how does it relate to girls’ achievement?

Answer 12

The ‘glass ceiling’ is an invisible barrier to high-level careers. As more women break through it, they become role models for girls, motivating them to pursue qualifications.

Question 13

What did Sue Sharpe find about girls’ ambitions in the 1970s vs the 1990s?

Answer 13

In the 1970s, girls prioritised love, marriage, and children; by the 1990s, they were more career-focused, valuing independence and education.

Question 14

What did O’Connor (2006) find about young girls’ future plans?

Answer 14

Girls aged 14–17 rarely saw marriage and children as a key part of their future goals.

Question 15

How does Gernsheim (2001) explain changing female ambitions?

Answer 15

Links it to individualism — in modern society, independence and self-sufficiency are highly valued.

Question 16

What did Fuller (2011) find about girls’ identities and education?

Answer 16

Many girls saw educational success as central to their identity and believed in meritocracy and self-reliance.

Question 17

What did Diane Reay (1998) say about WC girls’ aspirations?

Answer 17

Many working-class girls still aspire to traditional roles, seeing marriage and children as more realistic due to limited job prospects.

Question 18

What did Biggart (2002) argue about WC girls?

Answer 18

Some see motherhood as their only secure future, so they place less value on education and careers.

Question 19

How does girls’ maturity affect educational achievement?

Answer 19

By age 16, girls are developmentally up to two years ahead of boys, which helps them take exams and career planning more seriously.

Question 20

What did Hannan (2000) say about gender differences in socialisation?

Answer 20

Girls tend to socialise through talking, boosting language skills vital for school, while boys bond through action-based activities.

Question 21

What did Burns and Bracey (2001) find about girls’ academic behaviour?

Answer 21

Girls put more effort into homework, are more likely to revise and redraft, and show greater commitment to academic success.

Question 22

How has feminism influenced educational policy?

Answer 22

It has led to equal opportunities policies like GIST and WISE, encouraging girls into traditionally male-dominated fields.

Question 23

What was the impact of the 1988 National Curriculum on gender equality?

Answer 23

It made boys and girls study the same subjects, removing a key source of gender inequality.

Question 24

What did Boaler (1998) say about equal opportunities policies?

Answer 24

They helped create more meritocratic schools and removed barriers to girls’ achievement.

Question 25

What did the Institute of Physics (2012) find about girls in A-Level physics?

Answer 25

The proportion of girls taking A-Level physics has stayed around 20% for over 20 years, suggesting limited impact of equality policies in some subjects.

Question 26

Why are female teachers important role models for girls?

Answer 26

They show that academic and professional success is achievable, encouraging girls to value and invest in education.

Question 27

What did Weiner (1995) say about positive role models?

Answer 27

The increased presence of successful women in schools reinforces the idea that education leads to success for girls.

Question 28

What did Sewell (2006) argue about school values?

Answer 28

Schools favour traits like organisation and attentiveness, which align with female socialisation and support girls’ success.

Question 29

How did the introduction of GCSEs and coursework affect gender achievement?

Answer 29

Girls benefited because coursework rewards organisation and consistency — skills girls are often socialised to develop.

Question 30

What did Mitsos and Browne (1998) find about girls and coursework?

Answer 30

Girls are better at meeting deadlines, organising work, and have stronger language skills — all advantages in coursework. Also have higher developed language skills- can perform better in oral exams (much more popular today)

Question 31

What did Gorard (2005) say about the gender gap and coursework?

Answer 31

The gender gap widened when coursework was introduced, suggesting it helped boost girls’ achievement.

Question 32

What did Elwood (2005) argue about coursework?

Answer 32

Coursework may contribute to the gender gap, but final exams still carry more weight, so it’s not the sole cause.

Question 33

How does teacher attention differ between boys and girls?

Answer 33

Girls receive more positive attention for being cooperative, while boys get more negative attention for being disruptive.

Question 34

What did French and French (1993) find about teacher interaction?

Answer 34

Teachers interacted with boys more but often to reprimand them; girls received more supportive interaction.

Question 35

What did Francis (2001) say about teacher discipline?

Answer 35

Boys are disciplined more harshly, often feeling unfairly targeted and demotivated.

Question 36

What did Swann (1998) find about classroom interaction styles?

Answer 36

Boys dominate class discussions; girls prefer cooperative work and are viewed more positively by teachers.

Question 37

How have schools challenged gender stereotypes since the 1980s?

Answer 37

They’ve removed sexist content from textbooks and promoted non-traditional gender roles through teaching.

Question 38

What did Weiner (1995) find about changes in textbooks and teaching?

Answer 38

Textbooks now portray women more positively—as active and successful—which raises girls’ aspirations.

Question 39

How has marketisation affected gender achievement?

Answer 39

Marketisation encourages schools to recruit high-achieving pupils; since girls often outperform boys, they’re seen as more desirable.

Question 40

What did Jackson (1998) find about league tables and girls?

Answer 40

League tables have improved girls’ opportunities, as schools prefer recruiting high-achieving girls to boost their results.

Question 41

What did Slee (1998) argue about boys and school admissions?

Answer 41

Boys are seen as ‘liability students’ due to behaviour and exclusion risks, making schools less likely to admit them.

Question 42

What is the liberal feminist view on girls’ achievement?

Answer 42

Girls’ achievement shows progress toward gender equality, supported by policies like GIST/WISE and positive role models—but more progress is needed.

Question 43

What is the radical feminist view on girls’ achievement?

Answer 43

Despite academic success, the system remains patriarchal; girls still face sexism, restricted subject choices, and career barriers.

Question 44

What did Weiner (1993) say about the curriculum?

Answer 44

The history curriculum is a “woman-free zone,” showing that women’s contributions are still underrepresented in education.

Question 45

What is the impact of symbolic capital and hyper-heterosexual identities on working-class girls’ educational achievement?

Answer 45

Working-class girls adopt hyper-heterosexual identities to gain peer status, but this can conflict with school expectations, leading to negative teacher labels and lower academic support.

Question 46

How do relationships and aspirations affect working-class girls’ educational achievement?

Answer 46

Some working-class girls prioritize relationships and motherhood over education, seeing higher education as threatening to their personal relationships or future aspirations.

Question 47

What are ‘loud identities’ and how do they affect educational outcomes?

Answer 47

‘Loud identities’ are adopted by some working-class girls to gain peer status through being assertive or confrontational. These girls may be labelled as disruptive by teachers, which can lead to lower expectations and hinder their academic success.

Question 48

What is the ‘Working Class Girls Dilemma’ (Evans, 2009)?

Answer 48

Working-class girls face a conflict between maintaining their social identity and peer group approval while also striving for academic success, often leading to a preference for local universities and limiting educational and career opportunities.

Question 49

How does boys’ poorer literacy skills contribute to the gender achievement gap?

Answer 49

DCS (2007) suggests that underachievement in literacy is a primary factor in the gender gap, as boys often perform worse in literacy, which affects their academic performance across subjects.

Question 50

How do boys’ reading habits impact their academic achievement?

Answer 50

Boys are less likely to read in their leisure time, which hinders their language development. This leads to poorer academic performance, as reading is essential for comprehension and language skills in subjects like English and history.

Question 51

What impact does the lack of same-sex role models have on boys’ reading habits?

Answer 51

Mothers are more likely to read to children than fathers, leading to boys lacking male role models who encourage reading. This results in fewer boys engaging in reading, which hampers their language development and academic success.

Question 52

How is reading viewed by boys, and how does this affect their performance?

Answer 52

Reading is often seen as feminine and unappealing by boys, as they associate it with a lack of action. This cultural view discourages boys from engaging in reading, which undermines their literacy skills and academic performance.

Question 53

How does the focus on fiction in schools affect boys’ achievement?

Answer 53

Schools tend to focus on fiction, which benefits girls who tend to read it more, as fiction helps develop comprehension and analytical skills. Boys, who prefer reading for information, may struggle with this and feel demotivated.

Question 54

What cascading effect does poor literacy have on boys’ academic achievement?

Answer 54

Poor literacy skills affect boys’ performance across all subjects, as reading and language skills are required in nearly every area of study, such as history and science.

Question 55

How has globalisation affected traditional male employment?

Answer 55

Since the 1980s, globalisation has led to the decline of traditional working-class male jobs (e.g., mining, shipbuilding), reducing opportunities for stable manual work.

Question 56

What is the ‘crisis of masculinity’ (Mitsos and Browne, 1998)?

Answer 56

A situation where boys lose motivation in education due to the disappearance of traditional male jobs, leading them to question the value of qualifications.

Question 57

How does the shift towards the service sector affect boys’ educational motivation?

Answer 57

The growth of service and knowledge-based jobs (e.g., retail, office work) is often seen as more suited to feminine traits, discouraging boys who struggle to see themselves in such roles.

Question 58

Why might the decline of manual jobs reduce boys’ academic drive?

Answer 58

Without the promise of stable, masculine employment, many boys no longer see education as a necessary or worthwhile investment.

Question 59

How do boys’ typical leisure activities affect their academic achievement?

Answer 59

Boys often play sports or video games, which lack the verbal engagement needed for literacy development, hindering academic success.

Question 60

How do girls’ leisure activities support academic performance?

Answer 60

Girls are more likely to engage in reading and talk-based socialising, which strengthens communication, comprehension, and analytical skills.

Question 61

What is “laddish” behaviour and how does it affect boys’ literacy?

Answer 61

It’s the idea that reading is “uncool” or “girly,” leading boys to avoid literacy activities due to peer pressure, which harms their achievement.

Question 62

How do peer group norms influence gendered differences in leisure?

Answer 62

Girls’ peer groups often support reading and educational ambition, while boys’ groups may discourage such behaviour, reinforcing underachievement.

Question 63

What does Sewell mean by the ‘feminisation of education’?

Answer 63

Schools value traits like attentiveness and organisation—seen as feminine—while undervaluing masculine traits like competitiveness, disadvantaging boys.

Question 64

How does coursework relate to the feminisation of education?

Answer 64

Coursework rewards traits like methodical work and organisation, which are stereotypically feminine and may explain why girls perform better.

Question 65

What is a key critique of Sewell’s ‘feminisation’ argument?

Answer 65

It’s oversimplified—schools still value competitiveness due to league tables and exam pressures, which align with masculine traits.

Question 66

What concern is raised about the shortage of male primary school teachers?

Answer 66

Some argue boys lack male role models and see school as feminine, reducing their engagement and motivation.

Question 67

What did YouGov (2007) find about male teachers and boys’ attitudes?

Answer 67

39% of boys aged 8–11 had no male teachers; many said they’d behave better with one, suggesting male role models might boost engagement.

Question 68

How do Francis (2006) challenge the idea that boys need male teachers?

Answer 68

most boys and girls thought the gender of their teacher was irrelevant

Question 69

How does Read (2008) challenge the idea that boys need male teachers?

Answer 69

Female teachers do not struggle to impose discipline- this is a misconception-most teachers use a ‘disciplinarian discourse’ to maintain control. This overturns the idea that primary schools may also culture has become feminised in a way that disadvantages boys.

Question 70

What is a ‘laddish subculture’ in education?

Answer 70

A peer culture where toughness, anti-academic behaviour, and rejecting schoolwork are seen as markers of masculinity.

Question 71

How does peer pressure influence boys in laddish subcultures?

Answer 71

Boys are pressured to see academic work as ‘feminine’ and may act disruptively to gain peer approval (Forde et al., 2006).

Question 72

What did Epstein (1998) find about working-class boys and academic success?

Answer 72

Boys who tried to succeed were labelled ‘sissies’ and faced homophobic abuse, discouraging engagement with school.

Question 73

How do Willis’s (1977) findings relate to modern laddish subcultures?

Answer 73

His ‘lads’ rejected school values and gained status through defiance—behaviours that continue to influence boys today.

Question 74

Why might boys reject academic success in laddish cultures?

Answer 74

To maintain their masculine identity and social status among peers who view education as uncool or unmanly.

Question 75

How can teachers’ lower expectations affect boys’ achievement?

Answer 75

Teachers may expect boys to be disruptive or underperform, leading to less encouragement and support, which can hinder achievement.

Question 76

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in relation to boys’ education?

Answer 76

When boys internalise low expectations from teachers and begin to behave or perform in ways that match those assumptions.

Question 77

How might discipline and opportunities differ for boys?

Answer 77

Boys may receive more punishments and fewer positive academic opportunities due to teacher bias.

Question 78

Are all boys equally affected by lower expectations?

Answer 78

No—working-class boys may be more affected, while some teachers actively work to challenge gender stereotypes.

Question 79

What are male subcultures in schools and how do they form?

Answer 79

Male subcultures form around shared masculine identities and often reject academic success in favour of toughness, rebellion, and independence.

Question 80

How do male subcultures affect boys’ academic behaviour?

Answer 80

They discourage academic effort and promote disruptive or defiant behaviour to conform to masculine norms.

Question 81

What did Willis (1977) find in his study of the ‘lads’?

Answer 81

He found that working-class boys formed an anti-school subculture, rejecting school values and gaining status through defiance.

Question 82

What is “laddish” behaviour in the context of education?

Answer 82

It refers to boys viewing effort and academic achievement as uncool or feminine, leading them to avoid school success.

Question 83

What is gender role socialisation and how does it influence subject choice?

Answer 83

Norman (1988) found that boys and girls are socialised differently—boys are encouraged toward active play, while girls are guided toward passive, caring roles. This shapes later academic preferences.

Question 84

What are gender domains according to Browne and Ross (1991)?

Answer 84

Gender domains are areas of activity that children see as male or female, shaped by early experiences. Girls feel confident in areas like health, boys in areas like mechanics.

Question 85

How do gendered subject images influence subject choice?

Answer 85

Kelly found science is seen as masculine because of male-dominated teaching staff and textbooks focused on male interests, reinforcing the idea that science is a ‘male’ subject.

Question 86

How does peer pressure affect gendered subject choice?

Answer 86

Paetcher (1998) argued girls choosing traditionally ‘male’ subjects like sport may face bullying or be labelled ‘butch’, discouraging them from pursuing those subjects.

Question 87

What did Leonard (2006) find about single-sex schooling and subject choice?

Answer 87

Leonard found that single-sex schooling reduces gender-stereotypical subject choices—girls in all-girls schools were more likely to take maths and science, while boys in all-boys schools were more likely to take subjects like English.

Question 88

What double standard in sexual morality did Lees (1993) identify?

Answer 88

Lees found that boys are praised for sexual activity, while girls are labelled negatively (e.g., “slag”) for the same behaviour, reinforcing patriarchal control over female sexuality.

Question 89

According to Connell (1995), how does verbal abuse reinforce gender identities in school?

Answer 89

Connell found that name-calling (e.g., “slag”, “gay”) is used to police gender and sexual identities, reinforcing traditional gender norms and marginalising those who deviate.

Question 90

What is the “male gaze” as described by Mac an Ghaill?

Answer 90

The “male gaze” refers to how male pupils view and judge girls as sexual objects, reinforcing heterosexual masculinity and pressuring girls to conform to feminine ideals.

Question 91

How do female peer groups police identity, according to Currie et al. (2007)?

Answer 91

Girls are caught in a double bind—risking “slut shaming” for seeking male attention or “frigid shaming” for avoiding it—showing how peers enforce narrow standards of femininity.

Question 92

Internal factors why boys have underperformed

Answer 92

-Feminisation of the economy -Shortage of male primary school teachers -laddish subcultures -lower expectations -Male subcultures

Question 93

External factors why boys have underperformed

Answer 93

-Boys poorer literacy skills -Globalisation and the decline of traditional male jobs -Different leisure activities