Elements Of Apologetics Flashcards

Question

What metaphor does Job use to describe defending the weak?

Answer 1

I broke the jaws of the wicked and snatched the prey from his teeth.

Answer 2

They must step in and help.

Answer 3

Believers should be ready to make a defense for their hope with gentleness and reverence.

Answer 4

They should not worry about how or what to speak in their defense, as the Holy Spirit will teach them.

Answer 5

Maintain a good conscience and give a reasoned defense of their beliefs.

Answer 6

The book of Acts.

Answer 7

He spoke with wisdom and the Spirit, which his opponents could not cope with.

Answer 8

It emphasizes taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ.

Answer 9

He referred to his appointment for the defense of the gospel.

Answer 10

Exhort in sound doctrine and refute those who contradict.

Answer 11

In the synagogue and the marketplace.

Answer 12

It relates to the defense and confirmation of the gospel.

Answer 13

[defend themselves]

Answer 14

It indicates a deep commitment to Christ that underpins the believer's defense.

Answer 15

An accurate description of reality ## Footnote Truth is defined in relation to the correspondence theory, which asserts that a statement is true if it corresponds to reality.

Answer 16

A theory stating that a statement is true if it corresponds to reality ## Footnote This perspective emphasizes that truth is non-negotiable and essential for Christian beliefs.

Answer 17

What is there ## Footnote The term 'objective reality' is used to clarify that the identity of an object is inherent to it, not dependent on the observer.

Answer 18

Truth is an accurate description of reality; knowledge is a personal claim to such reality.

Answer 19

How a truth claim is justified ## Footnote Knowledge is an epistemological concept, contrasting with truth's metaphysical nature.

Answer 20

Any statement that provides a claim to truth.

Answer 21

More than merely a truthful claim; it requires justification.

Answer 22

Justified true belief.

Answer 23

To avoid worldly and empty chatter and arguments falsely called 'knowledge'.

Answer 24

external reality.

Answer 25

The identity of an object depends upon its intrinsic essence.

Answer 26

To have a basis for asserting that the claim is accurate.

Answer 27

It is essential for maintaining the integrity of Christian beliefs.

Answer 28

When it conforms to external reality.

Answer 29

Minds may be knowing or ignorant; propositions may be true or false; objects may be real or imaginary.

Answer 30

Acquiring knowledge through correspondence between observation and stored awareness ## Footnote This method asserts that if an observation matches the stored awareness of what it is, it is considered knowledge.

Answer 31

By matching perception with external reality ## Footnote An example is claiming 'the baseball is in the yard' based on visual confirmation.

Answer 32

A belief that is true and can be justified through evidence or observation ## Footnote This definition was challenged by Edmund Gettier, who presented scenarios where beliefs were justified but not knowledge.

Answer 33

An American philosopher known for the 'Gettier Problem,' challenging the 'justified true belief' definition of knowledge ## Footnote Gettier's work in 1963 demonstrated that justified true beliefs could be true for reasons unrelated to the justification.

Answer 34

Examples of justified true beliefs that do not constitute knowledge due to flawed justification ## Footnote Illustrations like 'A Cow in a Field' show how true beliefs can arise from misleading observations.

Answer 35

A reliance on observation and the senses to acquire knowledge ## Footnote This approach emphasizes the importance of sensory experience in forming truth claims.

Answer 36

A method of confirming knowledge by compiling multiple observations from different perspectives ## Footnote Induction helps improve the reliability of correspondent claims by comparing observations.

Answer 37

His claim was based on a narrow observation that was true by coincidence, not by proper justification ## Footnote Farmer Field saw a shape that resembled Daisy, but it was actually a piece of paper.

Answer 38

It represents the best temporary understanding based on current observations, subject to change with new evidence ## Footnote Scientific conclusions are often provisional as they rely on accumulated data.

Answer 39

[empirical approach]

Answer 40

False ## Footnote Inductive reasoning leads to probabilistic conclusions, not certainties.

Answer 41

'Truth is what endless corroborating observations will yield.' ## Footnote This definition emphasizes the reliance on continuous observation to establish what is true.

Answer 42

It implies that future observations could potentially invalidate current claims.

Answer 43

It is cataloged within a vast network in memory that fits with the layout of existence.

Answer 44

All truths cohere with one another as expressions of God's harmonious objective reality.

Answer 45

A proposition can be justified if it fits with all other propositions already deemed true.

Answer 46

Coherence seeks what makes sense, while correspondence seeks what matches.

Answer 47

The analogy of a crossword puzzle, where words must fit together.

Answer 48

When joined by valid inference to propositions that are true and certain.

Answer 49

Coherence is a theory of knowledge, not of truth.

Answer 50

It is a necessary condition of its truth but not a sufficient condition.

Answer 51

It defines truth as correspondence and coherence as a necessary, but not sufficient, test of truth.

Answer 52

The methodology of deduction.

Answer 53

It begins with unquestionable premises and uses valid arguments to derive truth.

Answer 54

It seeks to determine if a claim fits within the broader context of reality.

Answer 55

To generate truth claims.

Answer 56

Yes, as demonstrated by Einstein's thought experiments.

Answer 57

Correspondence and coherence.

Answer 58

Induction.

Answer 59

Deduction.

Answer 60

Uncovering general principles that can accommodate particular truth claims.

Answer 61

Coherence within its features is necessary for its truthfulness.

Answer 62

Is our faith reasonable? ## Footnote This question is rooted in the belief that the unexamined faith is not worth believing.

Answer 63

Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. ## Footnote Their thoughts form the foundation of the Classical apologetic approach.

Answer 64

1. Use philosophical arguments to indicate the existence of a creator. 2. Use historical arguments to verify Christian truth claims.

Answer 65

A prelude to other evidences. ## Footnote This step prepares for the presentation of specific miraculous truths.

Answer 66

I am not yet within a hundred miles of the God of Christian theology.

Answer 67

God is there.

Answer 68

He first targeted the creation before mentioning Jesus.

Answer 69

Deductive arguments positing an indubitable feature of existence as a premise to conclude God's existence.

Answer 70

1. The Law of Identity. 2. The Law of Non-Contradiction. 3. The Law of the Excluded Middle.

Answer 71

A is not non-A.

Answer 72

Either A or non-A.

Answer 73

God never behaves illogically in the proper sense.

Answer 74

God has revealed Himself in nature and conscience.

Answer 75

Logic to derive rational arguments from God's existence.

Answer 76

The glory of God.

Answer 77

His invisible attributes, eternal power, and divine nature have been clearly seen.

Answer 78

Emphasizing coherent forms within the cosmos and the laws of logic.

Answer 79

Paul noted the Athenians were 'very religious' to build a bridge.

Answer 80

The contribution of Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle

Answer 81

Arguments for the existence of God from change, efficient cause, possibility and necessity, gradation, and governance

Answer 82

The argument from change; everything that is changed is changed by something else, leading to a first cause of change which is God

Answer 83

The nature of an efficient cause; nothing can be the efficient cause of itself, leading to a first efficient cause, which is God

Answer 84

The nature of possibility and necessity; there must be something necessary in itself to account for the existence of contingent beings, which is God

Answer 85

The gradation of things; there is a greatest being that is the source of all that is good, true, and noble, which is God

Answer 86

The governance of things; natural bodies work towards an end by design, implying the existence of an intelligent being, which is God

Answer 87

* Move * Efficient * Necessary * Greatest * Purpose

Answer 88

They do not necessarily identify the God of the Bible, only a generic instigator or deity

Answer 89

1. There is no evidence that God exists. 2. If there is no evidence, then it is irrational to believe that He does. 3. Therefore, it is irrational to believe that God exists.

Answer 90

Agreement on the need for evidence for God's existence

Answer 91

To challenge Premise 1 regarding the evidence for God's existence

Answer 92

1. Ontological 2. Anthropological 3. Moral 4. Cosmological 5. Teleological ## Footnote These categories help to conclude God's existence by examining the nature of God, man, and physical existence.

Answer 93

God's uniqueness ## Footnote This argument questions whether there is something about our conception of God that confirms His existence.

Answer 94

Human morality and immateriality ## Footnote This argument explores whether our realization of human immateriality demonstrates God's existence.

Answer 95

Does our moral awareness demonstrate a moral standard that requires God's existence? ## Footnote This argument posits that a viable moral standard can only exist if God exists.

Answer 96

Natural contingencies ## Footnote This argument questions whether our awareness of natural contingencies indicates the existence of God.

Answer 97

Natural specificities ## Footnote This argument asks whether awareness of natural specificities indicates the existence of God.

Answer 98

It is related to Aquinas' 4th way dealing with graduated greatness ## Footnote This connection helps to ground the ontological argument in classical philosophical thought.

Answer 99

Naturalism cannot give us the entire picture of humanness ## Footnote This argument emphasizes the limitations of naturalism in explaining human immateriality.

Answer 100

It is related to Aquinas' 3rd way dealing with necessity and contingency ## Footnote This connection provides a philosophical basis for the cosmological argument.

Answer 101

Aquinas' 5th way dealing with purpose ## Footnote This relationship highlights the purpose-driven aspect of the teleological argument.

Answer 102

False ## Footnote The moral argument posits that moral standards require God's existence to be viable.

Answer 103

The Ontological Argument claims that proper reasoning about the idea of a Perfect Being generates the conclusion that God exists. ## Footnote It reasons apart from any phenomenon of existence.

Answer 104

Anselm of Canterbury ## Footnote Anselm's work 'Proslogion' was written around 1079.

Answer 105

God is 'that than which no greater thing can be conceived.' ## Footnote This definition implies that any attributes assigned to entities find their maximum expression in God.

Answer 106

The nature of 'being.'

Answer 107

1. God is 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived.' 2. Existence is greater than nonexistence. 3. Therefore, God exists.

Answer 108

The analogy of a painter conceiving a painting. ## Footnote The painter has an idea in understanding before creating the actual painting.

Answer 109

Existence is an attribute that is greater than nonexistence.

Answer 110

God cannot be conceived not to exist. ## Footnote This version introduces the concepts of necessity and contingency.

Answer 111

A being that does not depend upon anything outside of itself for existence.

Answer 112

Attributes that provide a status for the possessor that transcends the features of a lesser entity.

Answer 113

He used a reductio ad absurdum with the example of a perfect island to challenge the argument. ## Footnote This example posits that the existence of a perfect island could be argued similarly to God's existence.

Answer 114

A being whose existence depends upon outside circumstances.

Answer 115

Gaunilo inserted a contingent entity, while Anselm's argument requires a necessary being.

Answer 116

The concept of a Perfect Being is not impossible, since it is neither nonsensical nor self-contradictory.

Answer 117

It supports the conclusion that if God is the greatest conceivable being, then He must exist.

Answer 118

A personal being is an agent who brings about states of affairs according to his thoughts and designs.

Answer 119

maximally great being.

Answer 120

It cannot be contingent and must possess all qualities that are better to have.

Answer 121

A triune being is greater than a unitarian being.

Answer 122

René Descartes ## Footnote Descartes is known for reformulating the ontological argument for the existence of God.

Answer 123

Existence is a perfection of God ## Footnote Descartes argues that it is absurd to think of a perfect being lacking existence.

Answer 124

* God is a supremely perfect being. * A property of perfection is existence. * Therefore, God must exist.

Answer 125

Valleys imply ridges ## Footnote Descartes suggests that just as valleys and ridges are interconnected, so too are existence and the essence of God.

Answer 126

Existence cannot be a predicate ## Footnote Kant argues that saying something exists does not add any meaningful information about that thing.

Answer 127

Part of a sentence that gives added information about the subject ## Footnote For example, in 'John is tall,' 'is tall' is the predicate.

Answer 128

There is no substantive difference ## Footnote Kant believes that existence does not add any new information to the concept of John.

Answer 129

Imagining a pile of 100 thalers ## Footnote Kant questions what is added by specifying that the coins exist.

Answer 130

Existing items are in the actual world, while non-existing items are in a possible world ## Footnote This distinction shows that existence can be informative depending on the context.

Answer 131

A world that does not exist but could exist ## Footnote This concept helps differentiate between actual and hypothetical existence.

Answer 132

Actuality, possibility, impossibility, contingency, necessity ## Footnote These modes are common predicates in modal logic.

Answer 133

Alvin Plantinga ## Footnote Plantinga is a Christian philosopher recognized for this adaptation.

Answer 134

What could have happened instead of our actual world ## Footnote It includes entities that could exist in a world like ours.

Answer 135

An infinite number ## Footnote Possible worlds do not exist; they are imaginative scenarios.

Answer 136

Possible worlds do not actually exist; multiverse theory posits actual alternate worlds ## Footnote Possible worlds are imaginative constructs.

Answer 137

If God exists in some possible worlds, then God exists in all possible worlds ## Footnote This leads to the conclusion that if God exists in all possible worlds, He exists in the actual world.

Answer 138

Premise three ## Footnote It states that if God exists in some possible worlds, then He exists in all possible worlds.

Answer 139

Maximally Great Being ## Footnote This substitution helps clarify the necessity involved in the argument.

Answer 140

It must exist in all possible worlds ## Footnote This is based on the definition of a necessary entity.

Answer 141

'What is the contradiction that makes it not possible?' ## Footnote This challenges the assertion and seeks clarification.

Answer 142

They reject its merit ## Footnote Some view it as a philosophical trick and argue against defining God into existence.

Answer 143

'Isn't it your definition of God that makes His nonexistence absurd?' ## Footnote This question challenges the logic of the definition itself.

Answer 144

actuality, possibility ## Footnote These concepts are integral to the argument's reasoning.

Answer 145

False ## Footnote Possible worlds are theoretical constructs, not actual entities.

Answer 146

The problem of evil questions how a maximally great being (God) can be omnipotent and omnibenevolent while evil exists. ## Footnote This is often framed through the inconsistent triad of God's omnipotence, omnibenevolence, and the existence of evil.

Answer 147

* God is omnipotent (maximally powerful) * God is omnibenevolent (maximally good) * Evil exists

Answer 148

An inconsistent triad is a set of three propositions where at most only two can be consistently true at the same time.

Answer 149

A theodicy is an attempt to vindicate divine goodness and providence in light of the existence of evil.

Answer 150

Skeptics argue that the existence of evil is incompatible with the notion of an all-powerful and all-loving God.

Answer 151

Believers can ask for clarification on the meaning of terms like 'all powerful,' 'all loving,' and 'evil' to engage skeptics.

Answer 152

Jesus responded by asking them a question that challenged their reasoning and precommitments.

Answer 153

Apologists can dismiss the argument by asking for a definition of evil, questioning the basis of the skeptic's claims.

Answer 154

It indicates that atheists, when consistent with their worldview, do not have a problem with evil as they lack an absolute standard for good and evil.

Answer 155

[Christianity]

Answer 156

They argue that the outrage at evil suggests awareness of a standard of goodness, implying proof of God's existence.

Answer 157

Apologetics defends the faith from outside attacks and encourages believers in the veracity of their faith.

Answer 158

The skeptic claims that if God is maximally good, there should be no evil and suffering.

Answer 159

It posits that a world with evil and free agency is better than one without evil and free agency.

Answer 160

They argue that without free will, all moral meaning disappears from language and life.

Answer 161

It claims that evil plus freedom is a greater good than no evil plus no freedom.

Answer 162

It does not address natural disasters or suffering from genetic disorders.

Answer 163

He proposed that the inclusion of evil is necessary for God's wisdom to bring about His good plan.

Answer 164

Because all possibilities in God's understanding claim existence in proportion to their perfections.

Answer 165

Keller suggests that the world is greater for having been broken, and Lewis states heaven will turn agony into glory.

Answer 166

It states that God cannot be tempted with evil and does not tempt anyone.

Answer 167

They distinguished between what God decrees (wills) and what He ordains (allows).

Answer 168

Suffering comprises the reception of bad things, while evil comprises the doer of bad things.

Answer 169

He argues that eliminating suffering would make the world intolerable.

Answer 170

For those who believe in an afterlife, suffering can become a vital experience for good.

Answer 171

[love God]

Answer 172

It suggests that the strong should bear the weaknesses of the weak.

Answer 173

It questions how the observed evil could be the best pathway for good purposes.

Answer 174

He uses the analogy of 'God in the dock,' implying that sinners place God on trial.

Answer 175

It can prompt the activity of helping one another.

Answer 176

If one member suffers, all the members suffer with it.

Answer 177

It refers to how suffering can lead to personal growth and humility.

Answer 178

It states that affliction can help one learn God's statutes.

Answer 179

Job tried to place God in the dock and demanded an explanation for His dealings ## Footnote Job expressed a desire to present his case and fill his mouth with arguments against God.

Answer 180

Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? ## Footnote This highlights Job's ignorance of God's omnipotent actions.

Answer 181

I will have mercy on whom I have mercy ## Footnote This indicates God's sovereignty in dispensing mercy.

Answer 182

Job acknowledges his insignificance and refrains from further argument ## Footnote Job lays his hand on his mouth and admits he has spoken too much.

Answer 183

God is like a potter and humanity is like clay ## Footnote This emphasizes God's authority over creation.

Answer 184

The thing molded will not say to the molder, 'Why did you make me like this?' ## Footnote This illustrates the relationship and authority of God over humanity.

Answer 185

1) God is omnipotent and omniscient. 2) God is omnibenevolent. 3) There is objective evil. 4) For any evil that God allows, God has a morally sufficient reason for allowing this evil. ## Footnote This fourth proposition reconciles God’s nature with the existence of evil.

Answer 186

Everything God does reflects his wisdom, but he is under no obligation to give us his reasons ## Footnote This implies that God's actions may remain a mystery.

Answer 187

You turn things around! Shall the potter be considered as equal with the clay? ## Footnote This indicates that humanity should not question God's authority.

Answer 188

Scripture never assumes that God owes us an explanation for what he does ## Footnote This emphasizes God's sovereignty and the mystery of His intentions.

Answer 189

His greatness is unsearchable ## Footnote This reinforces the idea that God's reasons may be beyond human comprehension.

Answer 190

Possessing unlimited power ## Footnote The term refers to a being that can do anything that is logically possible.

Answer 191

A philosophical dilemma about whether an omnipotent being can create a stone too heavy for itself to lift ## Footnote This paradox raises questions about the nature of power and freedom.

Answer 192

God is considered 'from Himself', meaning His actions depend solely on His nature ## Footnote This concept highlights God's independence from external influences.

Answer 193

No, He cannot deny Himself ## Footnote This underscores the idea that God's actions are consistent with His nature.

Answer 194

God is omnipotent, evil exists, and God wills evil to exist for His good reason ## Footnote This argument addresses the problem of evil within the context of divine sovereignty.

Answer 195

An author who suggested that God is powerless to stop evil ## Footnote In 'Why Bad Things Happen to Good People', he argues that God's love limits His power.

Answer 196

If we sacrifice God's sovereignty, we sacrifice everything ## Footnote Piper argues that God’s governance of evil is crucial for hope.

Answer 197

Suffering becomes destructive in a materialist context ## Footnote This perspective lacks the framework to find meaning in suffering.

Answer 198

Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil, for You are with me ## Footnote This verse emphasizes God's presence during suffering.

Answer 199

The removal of suffering and evil in the afterlife ## Footnote Revelation 21:4 speaks of a future without pain or sorrow.

Answer 200

* God is sovereign * Evil exists * God wills evil to exist for His good reason

Answer 201

He is unique and who can turn Him? What His soul desires, that He does ## Footnote This underscores God's ultimate authority.

Answer 202

It states that both good and ill come forth from the Lord ## Footnote This reflects God's control over all events.

Answer 203

God permits evil to exist because He can bring good out of it ## Footnote This concept is discussed in Augustine's 'Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Love'.

Answer 204

It was delivered over by the predetermined plan and foreknowledge of God ## Footnote This illustrates the concept of divine sovereignty even in evil actions.

Answer 205

True ## Footnote God is holy and cannot act against His nature.

Answer 206

Stand back in awe regarding the magnitude of God's glory ## Footnote It invites a deeper appreciation of God's sovereignty.

Answer 207

Certain aspects of human nature to the existence of God ## Footnote The argument considers immaterial attributes and moral awareness

Answer 208

1. Immaterial attributes of humanness 2. Moral awareness

Answer 209

No, as our nature is a strict continuum from previous organisms

Answer 210

Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR)

Answer 211

There is something special about our makeup that separates us from animals

Answer 212

The relationship between the cerebral mechanisms of the brain and conscious thought in the mind

Answer 213

All conscious thought can be reduced to the mechanisms of a material brain

Answer 214

It arises from an immaterial soul that governs the brain

Answer 215

Whether the soul is identical to the brain based on Leibniz's Law of the Indiscernibility of Identicals

Answer 216

Their properties should be indiscernible

Answer 217

1. Consciousness 2. Abstraction 3. Free agency

Answer 218

The human ability of awareness

Answer 219

The human ability to symbolically represent items within conscious awareness

Answer 220

The human ability to respond to items of conscious awareness in a non-deterministic manner

Answer 221

meaning and purpose in the world

Answer 222

An acknowledgment of the special nature of human makeup

Answer 223

An organism's awareness of its environment ## Footnote This awareness is linked to the concept of sentience.

Answer 224

The Latin term 'sentire' meaning 'to feel' ## Footnote Sentient organisms can experience qualia such as pain and pleasure.

Answer 225

Phenomena like pain, pleasure, or redness that are subjective experiences ## Footnote Qualia are not reducible to material states.

Answer 226

The mystery of how neural activity gives rise to subjective experience ## Footnote This problem highlights the difficulty in explaining subjective perception.

Answer 227

A British philosopher known for new mysterianism, arguing that we cannot understand the causal basis of subjective conscious awareness ## Footnote McGinn emphasizes the limits of human understanding regarding consciousness.

Answer 228

The inability for others to access one's thoughts through physical means ## Footnote Thoughts cannot be directly uncovered or measured.

Answer 229

A recognition of an organism's subjective experience of the world ## Footnote This concept is notably discussed in Thomas Nagel's 1974 paper.

Answer 230

Qualia cannot be numerically tabulated as physical properties can ## Footnote Emotions and thoughts are distinct from measurable physical states.

Answer 231

The directedness of the mind towards an object, or the 'of-ness' and 'about-ness' of thoughts ## Footnote This concept has roots in the work of Franz Brentano.

Answer 232

Awareness regarding oneself and one's experiences ## Footnote It includes both pre-reflective and reflective forms of consciousness.

Answer 233

Mental activities require something outside themselves for their existence, while physical objects do not ## Footnote This touches on the self-existence argument.

Answer 234

It indicates a sense of unity and separateness from physical identity ## Footnote The use of 'I' reflects a distinction from the body.

Answer 235

Physical things change and depend on parts for identity, while the soul remains unchanged ## Footnote This suggests that consciousness cannot be purely physical.

Answer 236

The ability to categorize items of awareness under general names ## Footnote This is a key attribute that sets humans apart from other animals.

Answer 237

Humans can mentally dissect the world into discrete symbols and hypothesize alternate possibilities ## Footnote This cognitive ability is qualitatively different from that of other animals.

Answer 238

They lack the power of abstraction ## Footnote This limits their ability to contemplate abstract concepts like truth or morals.

Answer 239

Human attributes like abstraction and moral reasoning require an explanation that atheism cannot provide ## Footnote This highlights the uniqueness of human cognition.

Answer 240

It posits that individuals have the freedom to pursue personal goals independent of chemical causality.

Answer 241

Libet was a researcher who demonstrated that unconscious brain processes can initiate actions before conscious awareness.

Answer 242

It suggested that consciousness may not play a causal role in initiating volitional acts.

Answer 243

Choices originate from subconscious commitments and are not made in an evaluative vacuum.

Answer 244

The concept of 'free won't'.

Answer 245

It suggests that one's inclinations influence the quality of choices made.

Answer 246

It is the contradiction that arises when denying free agency while engaging in reasoning about that denial.

Answer 247

The mystery of how a material brain and an immaterial soul can interact.

Answer 248

He espoused the idea of dualism, suggesting that the mind and body are distinct entities.

Answer 249

He likened it to a pianist playing a piano, where damage to the piano affects the pianist's ability to play.

Answer 250

They argue that materialism refutes itself and undermines its own credibility.

Answer 251

It posits that humanity displays both nobility and wickedness, which can be explained by the Biblical account of creation and the fall.

Answer 252

He describes it as a paradox, showcasing both noble qualities and the capacity for great wickedness.

Answer 253

They remove culpability for wickedness but lose recognition of human nobility.

Answer 254

It indicates the likelihood of life after death.

Answer 255

It refers to the idea that if death ends everything, then consciousness is rendered meaningless.

Answer 256

The moral argument claims that the existence of moral judgments requires the existence of a transcendent law giver, that being God.

Answer 257

* The existence of objective moral reality * The existence of a personal and moral God

Answer 258

[personal God]

Answer 259

* If a personal God does not exist, then objective moral values do not exist. * Objective moral values do exist. * Therefore, a personal God exists.

Answer 260

Moral judgment is dependent upon the social conditions within a cultural context.

Answer 261

The idea that human beings have an innate understanding of how they ought to behave.

Answer 262

The existence of a Supreme Being is the only rational basis for moral law.

Answer 263

A highest good (summum bonum).

Answer 264

* Moral behavior is rational. * Moral behavior is only rational if justice will be done. * Justice will only be done if God exists.

Answer 265

A universal code we all must follow, recognizing an 'ought' that is exception-less in every culture at all times.

Answer 266

If God does not exist, then everything is permitted.

Answer 267

A rigid standard by which to judge all truth claims.

Answer 268

[transcendent source]

Answer 269

It indicates how people are inherently aware of moral standards, even if they criticize them.

Answer 270

That moral values exist independently of human opinions.

Answer 271

A dilemma regarding whether the pious is beloved by the gods because it is holy or if it is holy because it is beloved by the gods. ## Footnote First raised by Plato in his dialogue Euthyphro.

Answer 272

* If something is good because God wills it, then God could will anything to be good. * If goodness lies outside of God, then it undermines God's moral supremacy.

Answer 273

Objective moral values have their source in the eternal character, nature, and substance of a loving, just, and self-sufficient God.

Answer 274

Outside of the law.

Answer 275

God is subject to no law, while created beings are subject to God's moral law.

Answer 276

A reflection of the Supreme Being, indicating that human choice is morally right when it aligns with God's moral law.

Answer 277

* Necessary morality exists in all possible worlds. * Contingent morality cannot be objectively set apart as a standard.

Answer 278

They often cite what they consider to be reprehensible actions of God in the Old Testament.

Answer 279

The position that all moral judgments are merely expressions of feeling.

Answer 280

How do you justify (or ground) a moral standard without God?

Answer 281

They often respond with how it is possible for an atheist to be moral rather than addressing the basis for moral standards.

Answer 282

By that very fact or act.

Answer 283

God's moral will is based on His changeless character, not on whims.

Answer 284

It assures that God acts according to His nature, which is good.

Answer 285

They sidestep the argument by focusing on the actions of God instead of the necessity of a transcendent lawgiver.

Answer 286

The distinction between what 'is' (facts) and what 'ought' to be (values) ## Footnote G. E. Moore referred to this as the 'naturalistic fallacy'.

Answer 287

David Hume ## Footnote Hume's work includes 'A Treatise of Human Nature'.

Answer 288

A new sort of relation that cannot be deduced from facts ## Footnote This concept is often called Hume's guillotine.

Answer 289

Science can help navigate or optimize moral choices once they are determined by other means ## Footnote For example, providing evidence of oppression to support moral conclusions.

Answer 290

An Intuitive Collective Moral Standard as Darwinian-driven

Answer 291

Our evolutionary origins ## Footnote Dawkins draws parallels between physical traits and moral senses.

Answer 292

It suggests a moral standard that promotes collective well-being, but is subjective ## Footnote This raises questions about whose definition of harmony is authoritative.

Answer 293

Moral Standard as Utilitarian

Answer 294

Jeremy Bentham

Answer 295

The greatest happiness of the greatest number measures right and wrong

Answer 296

By adding the concepts of pleasure and pain to the principle ## Footnote He defined happiness as pleasure and absence of pain.

Answer 297

The is-ought distinction is illusory

Answer 298

Utilitarian maximization of sentient well-being

Answer 299

A hypothetical machine that provides simulated happiness for life ## Footnote It raises questions about the nature of well-being.

Answer 300

It may not account for the complexity of human experiences and motives

Answer 301

They lack a transcendent basis for moral obligations ## Footnote This leads to subjective moral standards.

Answer 302

An interpretive grid for moral decision-making ## Footnote This includes guidance from various books of the Bible.

Answer 303

* Ten Commandments * Mosaic code * Proverbs * Ecclesiastes * Prophets * Gospels * Epistles

Answer 304

The existence of God based on the nature of material existence.

Answer 305

An explanation.

Answer 306

'Why is there something rather than nothing?'

Answer 307

That everything must have a sufficient reason for its existence.

Answer 308

An entity that is dependent upon another entity for its existence.

Answer 309

It does not depend on anything else for its existence.

Answer 310

The universe has an explanation for its existence that is grounded in a necessary being.

Answer 311

It leads to the conclusion that there is no ultimate cause.

Answer 312

self-explanatory.

Answer 313

1. Anything that exists has an explanation of its existence. 2. The universe has an explanation of its existence grounded in a necessary being. 3. The universe exists. 4. Therefore, the universe has an explanation for its existence. 5. Therefore, the explanation for the existence of the universe is grounded in a necessary being. 6. Therefore, God exists.

Answer 314

They require a sufficient reason for their existence.

Answer 315

It suggests that the universe must have a cause for its existence.

Answer 316

Something.

Answer 317

If everything must have a cause, then God must have a cause.

Answer 318

By asserting that a necessary being does not require a causal explanation.

Answer 319

That it claims every item within the physical universe is contingent.

Answer 320

Contingent entities require a necessary being (God) for their existence.

Answer 321

contingent object.

Answer 322

It leads to an infinite regress.

Answer 323

It cannot not exist.

Answer 324

Through exclusive disjunctions: Either it exists or it does not.

Answer 325

The universe as a whole.

Answer 326

It must be grounded in something eternal.

Answer 327

Kalām is an Arabic term meaning 'word'. ## Footnote It is similar in meaning to the Greek expression 'logos'.

Answer 328

Al-Kindi (801 - 873) and al-Ghazali (1058 - 1111).

Answer 329

The kalām argument includes the idea that the universe has a beginning in time.

Answer 330

Everything that has a beginning of its existence has a cause of its existence.

Answer 331

The universe has a beginning of its existence.

Answer 332

Therefore: God exists.

Answer 333

'From nothing, nothing comes' (ex nihilo nihil fit).

Answer 334

Any expanding universe cannot be past eternal.

Answer 335

If the universe was infinitely old, then the light from every star would have time to arrive at earth, thus causing a bright night sky.

Answer 336

He observed a 'red shift' in several galaxies indicating the universe is expanding.

Answer 337

They detected the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation.

Answer 338

The ratio of hydrogen to helium is three to one.

Answer 339

The universe is moving towards a state of maximum disorder and minimum usable energy until it reaches heat death.

Answer 340

* Necessity: Uncaused, unchangeable, self-sufficient * Transcendence: Immaterial, omnipotent, omnipresent, eternal * Personal-ness: Has a will to decide

Answer 341

His invisible attributes, eternal power, and divine nature have been clearly seen through what has been made.

Answer 342

unchangeable

Answer 343

The cosmological argument seeks to establish that the universe has a cause, often identified as God ## Footnote This argument posits that everything that begins to exist has a cause.

Answer 344

The Impossibility of a Timeless First Cause ## Footnote This objection questions how a timeless cause can initiate a temporal effect.

Answer 345

Time behaves as a fourth dimension alongside the three spatial dimensions of length, width, and height.

Answer 346

Time slows down from the perspective of the moving entity.

Answer 347

Timeless ## Footnote This implies that the cause cannot be constrained by time.

Answer 348

It questions how a timeless entity can initiate an act or change, like creating a contingent universe.

Answer 349

God's existence is relational and personal, without a past-future dynamic.

Answer 350

God interacts within the temporal sequence of human activity.

Answer 351

The Possibility of Something from Nothing.

Answer 352

Lawrence Krauss.

Answer 353

A quantum fluctuation of information lacking space-time or matter.

Answer 354

It implies some laws of physics and a suitable quantum state are present.

Answer 355

It states that fluctuations in quantum fields are inherently turbulent.

Answer 356

They are theorized to have expanded their influence due to the rapid expansion during the big bang.

Answer 357

He argued that it assumes properties and laws that should not be present in 'nothing'.

Answer 358

The absence of anything not logically necessary.

Answer 359

The Ontological Argument refers to God as 'that than which none greater can be conceived,' while the Cosmological Argument refers to God as 'that which is farthest back.'

Answer 360

End, purpose, or goal

Answer 361

The argument from design

Answer 362

By design, not by chance

Answer 363

It indicates that it was fashioned with some purpose or goal in mind

Answer 364

William Paley

Answer 365

Complexity and intentional functionality imply a designer

Answer 366

* The cosmos displays features of intentional design. * If the cosmos displays design, then there must be a designer. * If the cosmos had a designer, then this designer must transcend the cosmos. * We call this transcendent designer God. * Therefore, God exists.

Answer 367

The teleological emphasizes specificities of the cosmos, while the cosmological emphasizes contingencies

Answer 368

Natural selection mechanism of evolution

Answer 369

Hyperactive agent detection device

Answer 370

Concepts of gods and spirits

Answer 371

Pareidolia

Answer 372

* Cognitive functions are not inherited; only genes are. * Cognitive functions do not have any selective advantages, only behavior does. * Cognitive functions cannot be observed, only inferred from behavior. * Only scant evidence exists of any connection between a given gene and a cognitive function.

Answer 373

It displays features of intentional design

Answer 374

It is the initiator of dogmatic statements about design.

Answer 375

God exists

Answer 376

[designer]

Answer 377

Assuming some predator is intending to do harm

Answer 378

Epistemic method of coherence

Answer 379

God as a first cause that is uncaused

Answer 380

God as an intelligence that establishes order

Answer 381

A mode of apologetics that attempts to show that Christianity is not unreasonable rather than proving it is reasonable. ## Footnote Also known as 'Apologetics of Defense,' focusing on factual defenses against criticism.

Answer 382

It emphasizes that correspondence can be a qualifier for truth claims. ## Footnote This means that evidence must align with reality to support claims.

Answer 383

Josh McDowell, author of 'Evidence that Demands a Verdict.'

Answer 384

To show that Christianity is credible rather than to prove that it is true.

Answer 385

A move away from dependence on past authorities like Aristotle towards empirical observation and the scientific method.

Answer 386

An English scientist and philosopher who promoted the scientific method and criticized reliance on past authorities.

Answer 387

'Novum Organum.'

Answer 388

He believed they were primarily contemplative and did not advocate rigorous experimentation.

Answer 389

Probable evidence admits of degrees and cannot produce certain proof, unlike demonstrative evidence. ## Footnote Butler claimed that 'Probability is the very guide of life.'

Answer 390

It suggested that religious realities are analogous to physical realities and can be understood through empirical approaches.

Answer 391

A modern evidential apologist who claimed that facts must be self-interpreting for knowledge to be attainable.

Answer 392

The Scriptures presume a correspondence view of truth, where language and reality are congruent.

Answer 393

He compares it to ships venturing out of familiar waters into the vast Atlantic.

Answer 394

The idea that compiling more evidence increases the certainty of Christian truth claims.

Answer 395

It posits that scientific efforts indicate cosmic design as an initial premise of a theistic proof that concludes with a transcendent Designer, whom we call God.

Answer 396

* Survival benefit (HADD) for those assuming intelligent agents behind phenomena * Natural selection producing organisms that only appear designed

Answer 397

The lesson explores whether human intuition can be warranted and if design intuition can be substantiated by science.

Answer 398

The ability to understand something immediately, without the need for intricate analysis.

Answer 399

Requiring elaborate analysis to uncover what our gut intuition already knows.

Answer 400

Fundamental expectations by which to live common life that must be accepted without analytical strings attached.

Answer 401

Science can only utilize data that is observable, measurable, and repeatable.

Answer 402

The view that a person could be wrong in a belief yet justified in holding that belief.

Answer 403

Criteria to identify mechanisms in life indicating an intelligent cause, requiring both complexity and specificity.

Answer 404

* Complexity with a very low probability * Specificity that is intentionally specified ahead of time

Answer 405

The chemical structure of DNA, which is complex and contains information necessary for cellular functions.

Answer 406

It states that the universe is finely tuned for human habitability.

Answer 407

The idea that there exist an infinite number of universes, each with its own properties and laws.

Answer 408

The principle that the best explanation is one that makes the fewest assumptions.

Answer 409

It may weaken the nature of scientific proof.

Answer 410

It is a reaction against the Designer hypothesis, indicating that physicists acknowledge the universe's fine-tuning.

Answer 411

No one of the approximately 50 cosmological constants can be predicted from the others; they are independent.

Answer 412

A philosopher who moved from atheism to deism due to the evidential weight of cosmic fine-tuning.

Answer 413

The origin of life and evolution of biological complexity required an improbable combination of astrophysical and geological events ## Footnote Proposed by Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in their book 'Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe' (2000)

Answer 414

Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee ## Footnote Their book was published in 2000

Answer 415

The belief that Earth is a typical rocky planet in a typical planetary system located in a non-exceptional region of a common galaxy ## Footnote Popularized by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake in the 1970s and 1980s

Answer 416

N = N* • ne • Is • fp • fpm • fi • fc • fi • fm • fj • fme ## Footnote N represents the number of Earth-like planets in the Milky Way having complex life forms

Answer 417

N* is the number of stars in the Milky Way; ne is the average number of planets in a star's habitable zone

Answer 418

Approximately 500 billion ## Footnote This estimate is based on multiplying N* and ne

Answer 419

* Is = the fraction of stars in the galactic habitable zone * Ip = the fraction of stars in the Milky Way with planets * Jpm = the fraction of planets that are rocky rather than gaseous

Answer 420

The fraction of habitable planets where microbial life arises

Answer 421

False ## Footnote The equation suggests that the probability of complex life is very low

Answer 422

utterly prohibitive

Answer 423

It raises questions about how life on Earth can exist under a strict Darwinian paradigm

Answer 424

The fraction of planets with a sufficiently low number of extinction events

Answer 425

A philosopher who moved from atheism to deism due to the argument from intelligent design

Answer 426

The fraction of planetary systems with large Jovian planets

Answer 427

Complex extraterrestrial life is an improbable phenomenon and likely to be rare

Answer 428

It contributed to Flew's transition from skepticism about theism to belief in deism

Answer 429

Abiogenesis ## Footnote Abiogenesis is also known as chemical evolution.

Answer 430

Michael Behe ## Footnote Behe discussed this in his book 'Darwin's Black Box'.

Answer 431

Mousetrap ## Footnote A mousetrap cannot function if any one part is missing.

Answer 432

* Control center for replication and metabolism in the nucleus * Energy supply by the mitochondria * Protein construction by RNA transcription and transference of instructions to the ribosomes * Waste disposal by the lysosomes * Food and waste storage by the vacuoles * Selective membrane transfer * Internal transportation by the endoplasmic reticulum

Answer 433

Natural selection ## Footnote Natural selection explains how traits better suited for survival are passed on.

Answer 434

The set of all genes in a species or population.

Answer 435

Copy errors in genes that increase trait options.

Answer 436

False ## Footnote Darwin's theory was later expanded upon by Neo-Darwinism which includes genetic mutations.

Answer 437

Microevolution involves small changes within species; macroevolution explains the origin of new species.

Answer 438

It amplifies traits that result in greater reproductive success.

Answer 439

The shortcomings of the Darwinian mechanism in explaining the origin of life systems.

Answer 440

* Origin of phenotypic complexity * Origin of anatomical novelty * Origin of non-gradual modes of transition

Answer 441

It illustrates selection's inability to invent.

Answer 442

They provide genetic variation necessary for natural selection.

Answer 443

It cannot adequately explain the transition from microevolution to macroevolution.

Answer 444

True ## Footnote The absence of any component leads to failure in cellular function.

Answer 445

A biochemical challenge ## Footnote Behe discusses the limitations of mutation-selection mechanisms.

Answer 446

It does not reveal a gradual adaptation of traits ## Footnote Denton suggests that the fossil record contradicts Darwin's expectations.

Answer 447

They would be connected by 'fine, intermediate varieties' ## Footnote This view was later challenged by the fossil record.

Answer 448

The idea that nature makes no jumps ## Footnote The term comes from the Latin 'natura non facit saltum'.

Answer 449

The Cambrian explosion ## Footnote This event features the rapid emergence of most major animal phyla.

Answer 450

Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould ## Footnote This theory suggests evolution occurs in brief bursts followed by long periods of stasis.

Answer 451

It occurs when a small portion of a species becomes isolated ## Footnote This isolation leads to changes that are not seen in the larger population.

Answer 452

They follow stasis and then extinction, not an 'evolutionary tree' ## Footnote This challenges the traditional view of gradual evolution.

Answer 453

That we evolved from various hominin species ## Footnote Examples include Neanderthals and Homo erectus.

Answer 454

It has remained virtually constant during their existence ## Footnote This suggests a lack of significant evolutionary change.

Answer 455

Different genes producing a single trait ## Footnote It allows for greater genetic variation.

Answer 456

Traits determined by several genetic loci ## Footnote Examples include height and other complex traits.

Answer 457

They could produce a small population with significant genetic variation ## Footnote This would counter the need for thousands of unrelated progenitors.

Answer 458

Jewelry, clothing, language, tools, and symbolic art ## Footnote These artifacts suggest a new type of behavior in the fossil record.

Answer 459

To prepare the ecosystem for advanced human predators ## Footnote This preparation could have prevented mass extinctions.

Answer 460

Allowed prey to adapt to the increased threat of advanced predators ## Footnote This adaptation helped maintain biodiversity.

Answer 461

Conduct personal study and explore rebuttals from qualified scientists.

Answer 462

Recognize the clear intuitive answer regarding design.

Answer 463

Douglas Axe.

Answer 464

The intuition that accidental invention is impossible.

Answer 465

It cannot know what to select without assessing utility until many steps later.

Answer 466

A demonstration that the basic argument is simple, not technical.

Answer 467

Leibniz's Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR).

Answer 468

* Something from Nothing * Living from Nonliving * Living from Material * Sentience from Living * Ought from Is

Answer 469

Naturalistic worldview fails to explain the evolution of consciousness.

Answer 470

It questions how an organism can represent items as abstracted symbols.

Answer 471

It questions if organisms can be free from chemical determinism to abstract.

Answer 472

They develop new hypotheses while admitting some holes in their ideas.

Answer 473

Matthew 11:25.

Answer 474

It suggests rebellion against their Maker influences their views.

Answer 475

A faith that constrains explanations of life and science within its tenets.

Answer 476

ten-year-old.

Answer 477

To investigate the probability of Christian truth claims through historical investigations.

Answer 478

It cannot provide a solid foundation for faith commitments.

Answer 479

An 'ugly, broad ditch.'

Answer 480

A less obvious necessary truth.

Answer 481

His existence is accepted by reputable historians as virtually certain.

Answer 482

As a carefully investigated account of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 483

Exact or certain, meaning 'not to trip up.'

Answer 484

He encouraged listeners to empirically verify his claims.

Answer 485

Researching primary sources and archaeological discoveries.

Answer 486

It is of a synthetic nature and never rises above probabilities.

Answer 487

A German historian known for his influential work on the historical method.

Answer 488

Eyewitness account and primary sources.

Answer 489

Number of sources and their agreement on an event.

Answer 490

The source having no attachment to the event.

Answer 491

The events surrounding Jesus had many open confirmations available for investigation.

Answer 492

It assesses if the testimony fits with other reliable documents of its time.

Answer 493

They can disclose unreliability only by exposing contradiction.

Answer 494

Their credibility.

Answer 495

It examines the textual transmission by which documents reach us, assessing how well current manuscripts match the original texts authored by Biblical writers.

Answer 496

* Shaped by church communities to address specific questions and needs * Passed down orally, evolving with legendary materials * Assumed written form long after the original events

Answer 497

Chauncey E. Sanders

Answer 498

It determines whether a written record is credible and to what extent, checking if the document is intended as a serious historical account and authoritative.

Answer 499

It determines whether non-Biblical historical material confirms or denies the internal testimony of the documents.

Answer 500

Over 30,000

Answer 501

It allows for comparisons that help reconstruct the original text with virtually complete accuracy.

Answer 502

The effort to uncover the content of the autograph from the multitude of manuscripts available.

Answer 503

They are much closer, with the earliest copies dating back to around 29 years after the original writings.

Answer 504

About 99.5% textually pure

Answer 505

Any difference between manuscripts involving spelling, word order, omission, addition, substitution, or total rewrite.

Answer 506

It involved memorization and accurate transmission of teachings, with some authors like Mark and Luke relying on eyewitness accounts.

Answer 507

* Controlled - material is memorized and preserved * Uncontrolled - subject to variations based on community needs

Answer 508

That a solid core of information about an event remains even after two generations of transmission.

Answer 509

They were required to accurately pass them on from memory.

Answer 510

They demonstrate a vibrant oral tradition and suggest that some teachings existed shortly after the events they describe.

Answer 511

No, it emphasizes the general meaning rather than exact wording.

Answer 512

Whether the Scriptures can stand as reliable documents on their own merit

Answer 513

Apparent contradictions in storyline between the four Gospels

Answer 514

Misrepresenting the Scriptures to point out supposed inconsistencies

Answer 515

Josh McDowell

Answer 516

The discipline of interpreting ancient literature

Answer 517

Five commonsense rules of interpretation for Scriptures

Answer 518

Every book of Scripture is delivered by human agency and must be interpreted from the author's intent

Answer 519

Every book of Scripture is received by human agency and must be interpreted in harmony with how readers would understand it

Answer 520

Every Bible passage has only one unchanging meaning but multiple life-applications

Answer 521

The most obvious meaning of any passage is usually correct

Answer 522

Scripture must be interpreted in harmony with the context and other passages

Answer 523

Interpreting Scripture by Scripture

Answer 524

To communicate God's plan of redemption through Christ

Answer 525

Apostolicity, Orthodoxy, Catholicity

Answer 526

Correspondence by eyewitness accounts, written by apostles or close associates

Answer 527

Coherence with the rule of faith established by previously accepted Scripture

Answer 528

Widespread consensus within orthodox Christianity

Answer 529

They were not written by the traditionally claimed authors but were anonymously written

Answer 530

Testimonies from early church fathers like Papias and Irenaeus

Answer 531

They were common fishermen who spoke Aramaic

Answer 532

["Jesus hand-picked literate men", "Intellectual transformation from being with Jesus", "Time to develop writing skills after Jesus' ministry", "Use of writing assistants (amanuensis)"]

Answer 533

Writers may not relay the complete story, emphasize different aspects, or omit/add details

Answer 534

Two or more claims that cannot simultaneously be true in the same sense and at the same time

Answer 535

If they are acquainted with Biblical hermeneutics and have investigated their issues in scholarly literature

Answer 536

Scholarly literature is available for response

Answer 537

Biblical writings with extra-biblical sources such as ancient writings and archeological artifacts ## Footnote The external test checks if Biblical references fit within other cultural expressions during the expected time period.

Answer 538

The 'fitting' historicity of the descriptions found in Scripture ## Footnote It does not prove the Bible to be the Word of God.

Answer 539

Adequate copies of the original autographs rather than a much later fabrication ## Footnote They should be historically consistent regarding various cultural details.

Answer 540

* City names * Language idioms * Financial transactions * Money exchange * Rulers * Cultural aspects * Political structures * Geography * Social customs ## Footnote These details help confirm the historical context of the texts.

Answer 541

A Scottish archeologist who confirmed the historical accuracy of the book of Acts ## Footnote He initially sought to prove the author of Acts inaccurate but found overwhelming evidence to the contrary.

Answer 542

It could bear minute scrutiny as an authority for the facts of the Aegean world ## Footnote Ramsay stated it was a model of historical statement.

Answer 543

More than 25,000 sites ## Footnote These include findings such as the bones of a first-century crucifixion victim and an inscription of Pontius Pilate.

Answer 544

A research fellow at Tyndale House who demonstrated the book of Acts' ties to its cultural and historical context ## Footnote Hemer's work confirmed hundreds of archaeological finds supporting specific persons, events, and facts.

Answer 545

He was a pioneer of Biblical archeology and an expert in Ancient Near East studies ## Footnote His proficiency in ceramics contributed to dating sites based on ceramic typologies.

Answer 546

Skeptical ## Footnote He changed his view after discoveries confirmed the historicity of Biblical details.

Answer 547

Most scrolls present a consonantal text virtually indistinguishable from the Masoretic Bible ## Footnote This finding highlights the preservation of Biblical Hebrew texts.

Answer 548

No archaeological discovery has ever controverted a Biblical reference ## Footnote His work confirmed many historical statements in the Bible.

Answer 549

An expansion of apologetic resources ## Footnote This has made it rare to encounter novel evidential challenges.

Answer 550

The life and resurrection of Jesus ## Footnote This topic will be investigated for external tests in the next lesson.

Answer 551

Is Jesus an historical figure, or was He invented by an early Jewish sect?

Answer 552

References to the person of Jesus from non-Biblical (external) sources.

Answer 553

Thallus (50-75 AD)

Answer 554

The darkness that fell over the land.

Answer 555

A Syriac Stoic philosopher who wrote a letter allegedly referring to Jesus.

Answer 556

Christians reciting hymns to Christus as if to a god.

Answer 557

A person named Chrestus who instigated the expulsion of Jews from Rome.

Answer 558

A 2nd-century Greek philosopher who denigrated early Christianity.

Answer 559

Referring to the first Christian lawgiver as a crucified sophist.

Answer 560

Tacitus and Josephus.

Answer 561

He underwent the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius by Pontius Pilatus.

Answer 562

Pilate was a prefect, not a procurator.

Answer 563

The James Passage and the Testimonium Flavianum.

Answer 564

Jesus as the brother of James.

Answer 565

Jesus as a wise man who performed wonders and was crucified.

Answer 566

Many scholars believe they include later interpolations by Christians.

Answer 567

Over seventeen writings.

Answer 568

* Christ's death under Pontius Pilate in Judaea between AD 26 and AD 36 * Christ was worshipped as God early on * Christ's followers often experienced persecution * Christians spread far and fast * Some early Christian leaders knew of Christ's family origins

Answer 569

Jesus is believable, therefore Jesus is God.

Answer 570

* Liar * Lunatic * Lord

Answer 571

* Fulfilled prophecy * Miracles * Resurrection of Christ

Answer 572

A less common kind of God's activity in the world.

Answer 573

All natural events must presuppose a supernatural substratum.

Answer 574

They cannot justify their own existence.

Answer 575

History as a search for a 'most probable event' and miracles as a 'least probable event.'

Answer 576

Magma represents the supernatural substratum, while lava represents miracles as rare glimpses into this reality.

Answer 577

That improbable events can still be true if no other explanation fits.

Answer 578

Its occurrence is the most probable conclusion from the evidence.

Answer 579

If the resurrection did not occur, faith is deemed worthless ## Footnote 1 Corinthians 15:13-14 states that without the resurrection, preaching and faith are useless.

Answer 580

The four gospels and all of Paul's letters ## Footnote Paul's transformation from a persecutor of the church adds credibility.

Answer 581

Women’s testimony was culturally deemed unreliable, suggesting authenticity of the event ## Footnote If the story was fabricated, it would be unlikely to use such a source.

Answer 582

Why would they continue to proclaim it to the point of death if it were not true?

Answer 583

* Jesus rose from the dead * Hallucination * Myth * Conspiracy * Swoon

Answer 584

* Too many qualified witnesses * Hallucinations are brief and private * Hallucinations do not interact with the environment * The corpse was still in the tomb

Answer 585

* The Gospels have a consistent style differing from myths * Insufficient time for myth development

Answer 586

* Disciples did not recant under torture * Profound nature of the story * No self-serving motives * No corpse produced by opponents

Answer 587

* Roman procedures ensured death * Signs of death (blood and water) * Transformation of disciples could not occur from a mere resuscitation

Answer 588

* Execution: Jesus was dead * Empty Tomb: The tomb was empty * Eyewitnesses: Over 515 saw Him * Early records: Not a later legend * Emergence of the Church: Rapid growth post-resurrection

Answer 589

* Transformation of defeated followers * Change of Sabbath from Saturday to Sunday * Testimony of women recorded * Declaration of Jesus as Lord * Early declaration of resurrection

Answer 590

Amassing supportive facts to deem the Christian explanation plausible

Answer 591

Evidential relies on inductive reasoning from demonstrable facts; classical uses deductive reasoning from premises

Answer 592

* Specified complexity * Fine-tuned universe * Rare Earth equation * Biogenesis * Fossil record * Human consciousness * Human abstraction * Human free agency

Answer 593

* Eyewitness testimony * Outside document consistency * Cultural consistency * Human behavior consistency * Testimony trustworthiness * Manuscript authenticity * Oral tradition dependability * Archeological consistency * Resurrection credibility

Answer 594

Induction: Generalize from cumulative observations

Answer 595

Deduction: Specify from general premises