emotion/personality

Question 1

Motive

Answer 1

is a need or a want that causes us to act.

Question 2

Motivation

Answer 2

directs and maintains
goal-directed behavior. Motivational theories explain the relationship between physi- ological changes and emotional experiences.

Question 3

Instinct theory

Answer 3

physical and mental instincts such as curiosity and fearfulness cause us to act. Instincts are inherited automatic species-specific behaviors.

Question 4

Drive reduction theory

Answer 4

focuses on internal states of tension, such as hunger, that motivate us to pursue actions that reduce the tension and bring us back tohomeostasis, which is internal balance. Need is a motivated state caused by a physiological deficit. Drive is a state of psychological tension, induced by a need, which motivates us.

Question 5

Incentive theory

Answer 5

beyond the primary motives of food, drink, and sex that push us toward a goal, secondary motives or external stimuli such as money, approval, and grades regulate and pull us toward a goal.

Question 6

Arousal theory

Answer 6

each of us has an optimal level of arousal necessary to perform tasks which varies with the person and the activity. Arousal is the level of alert- ness, wakefulness, and activation caused by activity in the central nervous system. According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, for easy tasks, moderately high arousal is optimal; for difficult tasks, moderatelylow is optimal; and for most average tasks, a moderate level of arousal is optimal.

Question 7

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 7

arranges biological and social needs ni priority from the lowest level of(1) basic biological needs to (2) safety and securityneeds to
(3) belongingness and love needs to (4) self-esteem needs to (5) self-actualization needs. The need for self-actualization, the need to fulfill one’s potential, and tran- scendence, spiritual fulfillment, are the highest needs and can only be realized after each succeeding need below has been fulfilled; lacks evidence to support theory.

Question 8

Physiological motives

Answer 8

are primary motives such as hunger, thirst, pain, and sex influenced by biological factors, environmental factors, and learned preferences and habits.

Question 9

Hunger

Answer 9

increases with stomach contractions, low blood sugar, high insulin levels that stimulate the lateral hypothalamus (LH); high levels of the neurotransmitters nor- epinephrine, GABA, and neuropeptide Ythat stimulate the paraventricular hypothal- amus (PVN); environmental factors such as the sight and smell of desired foods; and stress. Stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) stops eating behavior.

Question 10

Set point

Answer 10

a preset natural body weight, determined by the number of fat cells in our body.

Question 11

Anorexia nervosa

Answer 11

eating disorder most common in adolescent females character- ized by weight less than 85 percent of normal, abnormally restrictive food consump- tion, and an unrealistic body image.

Question 12

Bulimia nervosa

Answer 12

an eating disorder characterized by a pattern of eating binges involving intake of thousands of calories, followed by purging, either by vomiting or using laxatives.

Question 13

Thirst

Answer 13

increases with mouth dryness; shrinking of cels from loss of water and low blood volume which stimulate the lateral hypothalamus; and sight and smell of desired fluids.

Question 14

Pain

Answer 14

promotes avoidance or escape behavior to eliminate causes of discomfort.

Question 15

Sex

Answer 15

necessary for survival of the species, butnot the individual. Testosterone levels in humans seem related to sexual motivation in both sexes.

Question 16

Sexual orientation

Answer 16

refers to the direction ofa n individual’s sexual interest

Question 17

Homosexuality

Answer 17

a tendency to direct sexual desire toward another person of the same sex.

Question 18

Bisexuality

Answer 18

a tendency to direct sexualdesire toward people ofboth sexes.

Question 19

Heterosexuality

Answer 19

a tendency to direct sexual desire toward people of the opposite sex.

Question 20

Social motives

Answer 20

are learned needs, such as the need for achievement and the need for affiliation, that energize behavior acquired as part of growing up in a particular society or culture.

Question 21

Need for achievement

Answer 21

a desire to meet some internalized standard of excellence, related to productivity and success. People with a high need for achievement choose moderately challenging tasks to satisfy their need.

Question 22

Affiliation motive

Answer 22

the need to be with others; is aroused when people feel threatened, anxious, or celebratory.

Question 23

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 23

a desire to perform an activity for its own sake.

Question 24

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 24

a desire to perform an activity to obtain a reward such as money, applause, or attention.

Question 25

Overjustification effect

Answer 25

where promising a reward for doing something we already like ot do results ni us seeing the reward as the motivation for performing the task. When the reward si taken away, the behavior tends to disappear.

Question 26

Social conflict situations

Answer 26

involve being torn in different directions by opposing motives that block us from attaining a goal, leaving us feeling frustrated and stressed.

Question 27

Approach-approach conflicts

Answer 27

situations involving two positive options, only one of whichwe can have.

Question 28

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Answer 28

situations involving two negative options, one of which we must choose.

Question 29

Approach-avoidance conflicts

Answer 29

situations involving whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences

Question 30

Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts

Answer 30

situations involving several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects.

Question 31

Emotions

Answer 31

are psychological feelings that involve physiological arousal (biological component), conscious experience (cognitive component), and overt behavior (behav- oral component). Physiological arousal involves stimulation of the sympathetic ner- vous system and hormonal secretion. The limbic system is the center for emotions; the amygdala influences aggression and fear and interacts with the hypothalamus. Basic emotions such as joy, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, and disgust are inborn. Cross- cultural studies support the universal recognition of at least six basic emotions based on facial expressions.

Question 32

Evolutionary theory

Answer 32

emotions developed because of their adaptive value, allowing the organism to avoid danger and survive. We often know how we feel before we know what we think.

Question 33

James-Lange theory

Answer 33

conscious experience of emotion results from one's awareness of autonomic arousal.

Question 34

Cannon-Bard theory

Answer 34

the thalamus sends information to the limbic system and cerebral cortex simultaneously so that conscious experience of emotion accompanies physiological processes.

Question 35

Opponent-process theory

Answer 35

ollowing a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion. On repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger.

Question 36

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

Answer 36

we determine an emotion from our physiological arousal and then label that emotion according to our cognitive explanation for the arousal.

Question 37

Cognitive-appraisal theory

Answer 37

our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in.

Question 38

Health psychology

Answer 38

looks at relationship between psychological behavior-thoughts, feelings,andactions-and physical health

Question 39

Stress

Answer 39

both psychological and physiological reactions to stressors; situations, events, or stimuli that produce uncomfortable feelings or anxiety.

Question 40

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 40

three-stage process describes our body's reaction to stress:

Question 41

Alarm reaction

Answer 41

stressor triggers increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system.

Question 42

Resistance

Answer 42

raised temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration maintained; levels of adrenaline and corticosteroids rise.

Question 43

Exhaustion stage

Answer 43

immune system is weakened, increased susceptibility to ulcers, depression, death.

Question 44

Catastrophes

Answer 44

unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us.

Question 45

Significant life events

Answer 45

stressful changes in our lives such as death of a loved one, marriage, starting college, etc. Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale rates stressful events in our lives. The greater the number and intensity of life- changing events, the greater is the chance of developing physical illness or disease in the following year.

Question 46

Daily hassles

Answer 46

everyday annoyances that together can raise our blood pressure, cause headaches, and lower our immunity.

Question 47

Coping strategies

Answer 47

are active efforts to reduce or tolerate perceived levels ofstress. Maladaptive coping strategies include aggression; indulging ourselves by eating, drinking, smoking, using drugs, spending money, or sleeping too much; or using defense mechanisms.

Question 48

Personality

Answer 48

a set of unique behaviors, attitudes, and emotions that characterize a particular individual.

Question 49

Idiographic methods

Answer 49

personality assessment techniques that look at the individual, such as case studies, interviews, and naturalistic observations.

Question 50

Nomothetic methods

Answer 50

personality assessment techniques such as tests, surves. and observations that focus on variables at the group level, identifying universal trait dimensions or relationships between different aspects of personality.

Question 51

Biological approach

Answer 51

examines the extent to which heredity determines our personality.

Question 52

Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach

Answer 52

originated with Sigmund Freud, who emphasized unconscious motivations and conflicts, and the importance of early childhood experiences.

Question 53

Conscious

Answer 53

includes everything we are aware of.

Question 54

Preconscious

Answer 54

contains information and feelings we can easily recall.

Question 55

Unconscious

Answer 55

contains wishes, impulses, memories,and feelings generally inacces- sible to conscious.

Question 56

Id

Answer 56

contains everything psychological that si inherited and psychic energy that powers all three systems. Id is "Give me, I want," irrational, self-centered; guided by the pleasure principle

Question 57

Ego

Answer 57

mediates between instinctual needs and conditions of the environment to maintain our life and ensure that our species lives on; guided by the reality principle.

Question 58

Superego

Answer 58

is composed of the conscience that punishes us by making us feel guilty, and the ego-ideal that rewards us by making us feel proud of ourselves.

Question 59

Defense mechanism

Answer 59

extreme measures protect the ego from threats; operate unconsciously and deny, falsify, or distort reality

Question 60

Repression

Answer 60

the most frequently used and powerful defense mechanism; the pushing away of threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind; unconscious forgetting.

Question 61

Regression

Answer 61

retreating to an earlier level of development characterized by more immature, pleasurable behavior.

Question 62

Rationalization

Answer 62

Offering socially acceptable reasons for our inappropriate behavior; making unconscious excuses.

Question 63

Projection

Answer 63

Attributing our own undesirable thoughts, feelings, or actions toothers.

Question 64

Displacement

Answer 64

shifting unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or actions from a more threatening person or object to another less threatening person or object.

Question 65

Reaction formation

Answer 65

acting in a manner exactly opposite of our true feelings.

Question 66

Sublimation

Answer 66

redirecting unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulses into more socially acceptable behaviors.

Question 67

Oral stage

Answer 67

pleasure from sucking; conflict is weaning from bottle or breast; oral fixation; oral-dependent personalities are gullible, overeaters, and passive, while oral-aggressive personalities are sarcastic and argumentative.

Question 68

Anal stage

Answer 68

pleasure from holding in or letting go of feces; conflict is toilet training; anal fixation; anal-retentive personalities are orderly, obsessively neat, stingy, and stub- born; or anal-expulsive personalities are messy, disorganized, and lose their temper.

Question 69

Phallic stage

Answer 69

pleasure from self-stimulation of genitals; conflict si castration anxiety or penis envy. Healthy resolution ofOedipal/Electra complex results in identifica- tion with same-sex parent; fixation; homosexuality or relationship problems.

Question 70

Latency stage

Answer 70

suppressed sexuality; pleasure in accomplishments; if accomplish- ments fall short of expectations, development of feelingsof inferiority.

Question 71

Genital stage

Answer 71

adolescent to adulthood; pleasure from intercourse and intimacy with another person.

Question 72

Archetypes

Answer 72

inherited memories or common themes found in all cultures, religions, and literature, both ancient and modern.

Question 73

Individuation

Answer 73

psychological process by which we become anindividual; a unified whole, including consciousand unconscious processes.

Question 74

Humanistic approach

Answer 74

humans are born good and strive for positive personal growth.

Question 75

Behavioral approach

Answer 75

According to Skinner, our history of reinforcement shapes our behavior, which is our personality.

Question 76

Self-efficacy

Answer 76

is our belief that we can perform behaviors that are necessary to accom- plish tasks and that we are competent.

Question 77

Cognitive and social cognitive/social-learning approach

Answer 77

cognitive theories say human nature is basically neutral and we are shaped by our perceptions of the world.

Question 78

Collective efficacy

Answer 78

is our perception that with collaborative effort our group wil obtain its desired outcome. Research studies indicate high self-efficacy is more beneficial in individualistic societies and high collective efficacy in collectivistic societies for achievement of group goals.

Question 79

Trait theory

Answer 79

A trait is a relatively permanent characteristic of our personality that can be used to predict our behavior.

Question 80

Cardinal trait

Answer 80

defining characteristic, in a small number of us, that dominates and shapes all ofour behavior.

Question 81

Central trait

Answer 81

general characteristic; between 5 and 10 of these shape much o f our behavior.

Question 82

Secondary trait

Answer 82

a characteristic apparent in only certain situations. Our unique pattern oftraits determines our behavior.

Question 83

Extroversion

Answer 83

measures our sociability and tendency to pay attention to the external environment, as opposed to our private mental expe

Question 84

Neuroticism

Answer 84

measures our level ofinstability-how moody, anxious, and unreli- able we are as opposed tostability-h o w calm, even-tempered, and reliable we are.

Question 85

Psychoticism

Answer 85

measures our level of tough-mindedness-how hostile, ruthless, and insensitive we areas opposed to tender-mindedness-how friendly, empathetic, and cooperative we are.

Question 86

Unstructured interviews

Answer 86

involve informal conversation centered on the individual.

Question 87

Structured interviews

Answer 87

involve the interviewer posing a series of planned questions that the interviewee answers.

Question 88

Behavioral assessments-

Answer 88

record the frequency of specific behaviors in an observation.

Question 89

Self-report methods

Answer 89

the most common personality assessment techniques, involve answering a series of questions, such as a personality questionnaire, or supplying information about himself or herself.

Question 90

Halo effect

Answer 90

tendency to generalize a favorable impression to unrelated dimensions of the subject's personality.

Question 91

Hawthorn effect

Answer 91

when people know that they are being observed, they change their behavior to what they think the observer expects or to make themselves lookgood.

Question 92

Self-concept

Answer 92

our overall view of our abilities, behavior, and personality

Question 93

Self-esteem

Answer 93

one part of our self-concept or how we evaluate ourselves.