Empire to Democracy: 7 political authority 1914-1919

Question 1

why were political disputes swept aside in August 1914?

Answer 1

joined forces to pledge support for the German war effort
trade unions also promised not to disrupt wartime production through strike action
political truce known as the Burgfriede produced a unanimous Reichstag vote to grant war credits

Question 2

what does burgfriede mean?

Answer 2

‘castle peace’
refers to medieval times when conflicts between individuals were forbidden within an area controlled by a castle; it thus came to mean a ‘state of truce’

Question 3

what are war credits?

Answer 3

allowed the Kaiser’s government to raise money for the war by selling bonds (guarantees or repayment with interest after a fixed period) to the German people

Question 4

as the war progressed into 1915 what did Pan-German propaganda encourage support for?

Answer 4

Seigfriede
‘blessed peace of victory’ - the glory that would come over once the war was over
result of land annexations that would establish Germany’s supremacy in Europe
aristocrats and middle classes were enthusiastic supporters of the doctrine promising acquisition of new farming land in the East, industrial land in the West and colonies in Africa

Question 5

what did most of the SPD believe of the war?

Answer 5

that Germany was fighting a defensive war and was firmly against the idea of territorial annexation and the prospect of extending the war in the interests of the upper classes
anti-war movement increased in 1916 - despair of victory, deaths, wartime shortages and declining living standards

Question 6

what turning point happened in August 1916?

Answer 6

Kaiser appointed Paul von Hindenburg as the army chief of staff
Erich von Ludendorff was his deputy
the Kaiser surrendered his supreme commands to Hindenburg and allowed him superiority over the Chancellor
basically allowing a military dictatorship to emerge

Question 7

what political breakdowns followed the Kaiser’s new ‘military dictatorship’?

Answer 7

• increasing popular disturbances, strikes and clamours for peace. there were calls for a reform of the German constitution and of the government of Prussia and the Lander. These escalated after the ‘turnip winter’ and Russian revolutions 1917 which saw the establishment of a Marxist gov
• split in the SDP in April 1917
• first direct Reichstag intervention
• replacement of BH by George Michaelis
• establishment of the Fatherland Party
• appointment of Count von Hertling

Question 8

who were the Spartacists?

Answer 8

breakaway group of the SPD (1916)
founded by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
(subsequently became the Communist party of Germany KPD in 1919)

Question 9

what did the SPD split into?

Answer 9

SPD
Spartacists 1916
USPD 1917 - Independent Social Democratic Party with a commitment to end the war.

Question 10

what was the first direct Reichstag intervention?

Answer 10

the passage of the ‘peace resolution’ of July 1917. proposed by a Zentrum politician, called for end to war without annexations - supported by SPD, USPD and Z - Cons were anti

Question 11

who replaced Bethmann Hollweg and how did he react to the peace resolution?

Answer 11

George Michaelis, an insignificant Prussian administrator, in july 1917
Michaelis ignored the peace resolution by stating ‘I interpret it as’ thus persuading the Reichstag to support war credits

Question 12

what was the Fatherland Party?

Answer 12

established by Wolfgang Kapp and Admiral Tirpitz - supported donations from industry in Sept 1917
attracted Conservatives, right-wing liberals, middle classes, and the Army High Command
by 1918 party had 1.2 million members

Question 13

who was Count von Hertling?

Answer 13

elderly, half-blind Bavarian aristocrat - to succeed Michaelis in Nov 1917
promised to reform the Prussian three stage franchise and seek the peace revolution, but the Supreme Court still made the key decisions
after failed spring offensive a final attempt was made to break through the Western Front in March 1918
Ludendorff abandoned his objections to a parliamentary democracy and suggested the Chancellor seek an armistice based on Wilson’s 14 points

Question 14

what were Wilson’s 14 points?

Answer 14

devised as a means of dealing fairly with the aftermath of war
e.g. return of Alsace Lorraine to France
support for a League of Nations to monitor future disputes, self-determination to permit races to rule themselves, and general disarmament gave comfort to the German generals

Question 15

what were the two stages of the 1918 revolution?

Answer 15

revolution from above and revolution from below

Question 16

what was the revolution from above?

Answer 16

initiated by the Kaiser
30 Sept - Kaiser accepted Hertling’s resignation
1 Oct - Prince Max von Baden (cons) was asked to form a gov with ministers from the Reichstag
3 Oct - Max asked pres Wilson for an armistice based on his 14 points
24 Oct - Wilson believed Germany was an ‘autocratic dictatorship’ and therefore nothing but complete surrender would be suitable to the Allies. (this increased calls for the Kaiser to abdicate)
26 Oct - Ludendorff forced to resign after he unilaterally tried to order army generals to resist surrender. Max reassured Wilson that the military authorities had been placed under control of the German gov
18 Oct - Germany became a parliamentary monarchy with the agreement of the Bundesrat and Emperor

Question 17

whilst the revolution from above took place what did Britain do?

Answer 17

broke through the last German defence system, the Hindenburg line (6 Oct)
the need for an armistice became more urgent

Question 18

what parliamentary changes were made when Germany became a parliamentary monarchy?

Answer 18

• chancellor and minister were to be responsible to the Reichstag and the Bundesrat
• Kaiser’s powers over the army and navy were curtailed and all military appointments were to have the counter-signature of the Minister of War
• the Prussian three-class voting system was abolished and parliamentary reforms introduced in a number of the Lander

Question 19

what was the revolution from below?

Answer 19

second stage came a result of appalling living conditions and the news of an imminent defeat
29/30 Oct - crews on two of the vessels moored at Wilhelmshaven mutinied, when ordered on 24 Oct to make a suicidal attack against the British ships blockading the North sea ports sailors raised the Communist red flag
- Liebknecht called on soldiers, workers and other sailors to join a communist movement and began plans for a rising in Berlin
3 Nov - High Seas Fleet at Kiel mutinied, 8 shot
4 Nov - Kiel was held by 400,000 rebellious sailors, soldiers and workers
6 Nov onwards - elected councils of workers, sailors and solders modelled after the soviets were established in several major cities, establishing military and civil control
7 Nov - King Ludwig III of Bavaria fled and an independent socialist republic was proclaimed
8 Nov - Revolutionary Shop Stewards in Berlin appealed for a general strike, supported by Spartacists, SPD and unions
9 Nov - workers’ and soldiers’ councils were formed in Berlin, police headquarters occupied and hundreds of thousands of demonstrators converged on the city centre
Scheidemann, an SPD leader, proclaimed a republic from a Reichstag window
Liebknecht proclaimed a ‘workers’ republic’ from a balcony of the Royal Palace in Berlin (both before the Kaiser had abdicated)
- Prince Max announced the Kaiser’s abdication and transferred his political authority to SPD leader, Freidrich Ebert
Kaiser left for Holland

Question 20

what suggested that the ‘people’s revolution’ had not been as revolutionary as feared by the middle and upper classes?

Answer 20

ended with the establishment of a socialist republic - disappointing the Spartacus movement
most protests wanted some form of democracy rather than a communist-style workers’ dictatorship
many of the workers’ soviets were led by USPD members who sought democratic governmental change rather than an overthrow of the established social order

Question 21

when did the armistice take place?

Answer 21

11 November 1918

Question 22

what were the results of the January 1919 elections for a National Assembly?

Answer 22

sweeping victory for parties who favoured a democratic republic - the SPD, USPD and Zentrum between them won 80% of the vote
the newly elected assembly met in Weimar in February 1919 as Berlin was deemed too dangerous due to violent clashes between the Spartacists and military

Question 23

who was Hugo Preuss?

Answer 23

secretary of state for Ebert
liberal law professor who had begun work on a a new constitution and the assembly debated his proposals
Preuss favoured strong central government, as in imperial days, whereas others wanted a more decentralised federal structure that would give power to the individual Lander - a compromise was agreed in August 1919
Lander gov were given control of their own police, schools and judges however tax and military were in the hands of the central gov
Prussia and Bavaria also lost their monarchies
giving Germany the most democratic constitution in Europe

Question 24

in the new constitution, what could the President do as Head of State?

Answer 24

• elected every 7 years by men and women over 20
• appointed and dismissed ministers and could dissolve the Reichstag and call new elections
• supreme commander of the armed forces
• had reserve powers to rule by decree in an emergency without the Reichstag’s consent under Article 48

Question 25

what was the role of the Chancellor in the new constitution?

Answer 25

• had to have support of at least half the Reichstag
• proposed new laws to the Reichstag

Question 26

what was the Reichstag under the new constitution?

Answer 26

• second chamber of the German parliament made up of 67 representatives from the 17 separate states
• each state represented in proportion to its population, but no state to have more than 40% of the seats (to prevent domination by Prussia)
• could provide advice on laws but could be overridden by the Reichstag

Question 27

what were individual’s voting rights in the new constitution?

Answer 27

• vote for local state assembly every four years and for the president every 7 years
• vote occasionally on important issues
• ‘all Germans are equal before the law’
• guaranteed the freedoms of speech, of conscience and of travel
• guaranteed the right to belong to trade unions, political parties and other forms of organisation
• guaranteed the right to work and employees were given equal rights with employers to determine working conditions and wages
• had the responsibility to use their intellectual and physical powers in the interests of the community

Question 28

what was the Reichstag under the new constitution?

Answer 28

• elected every 4 years by all Germans over 20 using proportional representation
• the Chancellor and ministers were responsible to the Reichstag
• voted on the budget; new laws had to originate in the Reichstag and required the approval of a majority of Reichstag deputies

Question 29

what other features of the new constitution were there?

Answer 29

• there was a supreme court, independent of the Reichstag and the President
• the Republic had a federal system whereby there were separate state governments in the 17 Lander which kept control over their own internal affairs

Question 30

what were some of the key features of the constitution?

Answer 30

• Germany remained a federal state with a central Reich gov and separate ‘state’ Lander govs
• elections for the Lander and Reich were both through proportional representation
• both Chancellors and ministers were to be answerable to the Reichstag for their actions
• in the Reichsrat, each land (except Prussia) was to receive votes proportional to their population
  no absolute veto
• referendums could be called by the President, the Reichsrat or by ‘people’s request’ if 1/10th of electorate apply for one
• guaranteed ‘the Fundamental Rights and Duties of German Citizens’
  –> all Germans considered equal, property rights, freedom of the press and freedom of association, economic freedom - including right to have a job, the right to enjoy comprehensive social insurance, cooperation of workers and employees in the regulation of wages and of working conditions

Question 31

what was the new German republic known as?

Answer 31

from January 1919 the ‘Weimar Republic’