Endo Flashcards
(198 cards)
1
Q
What are the major glands of the endocrine system?
A
- hypothalamus
- pituitary
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- pancreas
- adrenals
- ovaries and testes
- pineal gland
2
Q
What secretes hormones to regulate many bodily functions, including growth and metabolism?
A
major endocrine glands
3
Q
Like the nervous system, what is one of your body’s main communicators?
A
endocrine system
4
Q
What is a specific cell with specific receptors that will respond to specific hormones?
A
Target cells
5
Q
What is the only cells for a given hormone and have receptors that bind and recognize that hormone?
A
target cells
6
Q
A target cell will have what range of receptors for a particular hormone?
A
2,000 to 100,000
7
Q
What are the two types of hormones?
A
lipid-soluble
water-soluble
8
Q
What are the three types of lipid horomones?
A
- steroid
- thyroid
- nitric oxide
9
Q
What is a water soluble hormone?
A
amino acid
10
Q
What are the two types of amino acids?
A
Short-chain; Antidiuretic hormone
long-chain; Insulin
11
Q
How do hormones influence their target cells?
A
chemically binding to specific protien receptors
12
Q
What is known as the master switchboard because it’s the part of the brain that controls the endocrine system?
A
hypothalamus
13
Q
What acts as a major link between the endocrine system and the nervous system?
A
hypothalamus
14
Q
What hangs by a thin stalk from the hypothalmus?
A
pituitary gland
15
Q
What is called the master gland of the body because it secretes several hormones that control other endocrine glands?
A
pituitary gland
16
Q
How many hormones does the hypothalamus secretes?
A
9
17
Q
How many hormones does the pituitary gland secrete?
A
7
18
Q
The hormones produces from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland play an important role in regulating virtually all aspects of?
A
- growth
- development
- metabolism
- homestasis
19
Q
What attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus?
A
stalk like structure called the infundibulum
20
Q
What blood vessels connect capillaries in the hypothalamus to capillaries in the anterior pituitary and carries hormones secreted by the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary?
A
hypophyseal portal veins
21
Q
Where are the hypophyseal portal veins located?
A
within the infundibulum
22
Q
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone stimulates?
A
- FSH
- LH
23
Q
Growth hormone-releasing hormone stimulates?
A
- HGH
- IGF
24
Q
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone inhibits?
A
- HGH
- IGF
25
Thyroid-releasing hormone stimulates?
TSH
26
Prolactin-releasing hormone stimulates?
PR
27
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone inhibits?
PR
28
Corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulates?
ACTH
29
What gland is the size of a grape and has two lobes?
pituitary gland
30
What are the two lobes of the pituitary gland?
- anterior
- posterior
31
Where do both lobes of the pituitary gland rest?
hypophyseal fossa
32
What is a cup shaped depression in the sphenoid bone?
hypophyseal fossa
33
What hormones act on other endocrine glands or tissues to regulate the secretion of another hormone?
tropic hormones
34
What promotes synthesis and secretion of Insulinlike Growth Factors (IGFs)
Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
35
What are proteins secreted mainly by cells in the liver, but also secreted by cells in the skeletal muscles, cartilage, bones, and other tissue in response to stimulation of hGH?
Insulinlike Growth Factors
36
What helps maintain muscle and bone mass, and promote healing of injury and tissue repair?
hGH stimulated protein synthesis
37
What enhances the breakdown of triglycerides and liver glycogen?
hGH
38
The breakdown of triglycerides release what into the blood?
fatty acids
39
The breakdown of liver glycogen releases what into the blood?
glucose
40
What maintains blood concentration by means of a negative feedback loop?
hGH
41
What are the two hypothalamic hormones that control secretion of hGH?
Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
42
What hypothalamic hormone is stimulated by low blood glucose levels?
Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
43
What hypothalamic hormone is stimulated by hyperglycemia?
Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
44
What stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland?
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
45
What controls TSH secretion?
Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
46
In females, what initiates the development of ovarian follicles, and stimulates follicular cells to excrete estrogen?
FSH
47
In males, what stimulates sperm production in the testes?
FSH
48
What controls FSH secretion?
GnRH from hypothalamus
49
In females, What triggers ovulation, stimulates formation of the corpus luteum in the ovary and the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum, and along with FSH stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogen?
LH
50
In males, what stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone?
LH
51
What controls LH secretion?
GnRH from the hypothalamus
52
What initiates and maintains milk production by the mammary glands?
prolactin (PRL)
53
What suppresses the release of prolactin most of the time?
prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
54
Very high levels of what promote secretion of prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) which in turn stimulates the release of prolactin?
estrogen
55
What controls the production and secretion of hormones called Glucocorticoids by the cortex (outer portion) of the adrenal glands?
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
56
What stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
57
What hormone is very little in humans and excessive amounts can cause darkening of the skin?
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
58
What contains axon and axon terminals of neurosecretory cells whose cell bodies are in the hypothalamus?
posterior pituitary
59
What part of the pituitary gland does not synthesize hormones but does store and release two hormones?
posterior pituitary
60
What two hormones are released from the posterior pituitary?
- oxytocin
- antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
61
What is released in large quantities just prior to childbirth to enhance contraction of smooth muscles cells in the wall of the uterus?
oxytocin
62
What stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands in response to suckling infants?
oxytocin
63
What decreases urine production, causes the kidneys to remain more water, thus decreasing urine volume, decreases water loss from perspirations, causes constriction of arterioles, thus causing an increase in blood pressure?
Antidiuretic hormones (ADH)
64
In the absence of ADH an individuals urine output will increase from 1-2 liters to?
20 liters per day
65
What glands function is to run the basal metabolic rate?
thyroid gland
66
What is the rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to keep vital functions going, such as breathing, keeping the heart beating, and keeping the body warm?
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
67
What is the butterfly shaped gland is located just below the larynx?
thyroid gland
68
What is composed of right and left lobes on either side of the trachea?
thyroid gland
69
What are the spherical sacs that make up most of the thyroid gland?
thryroid follicles
70
The walls of each thyroid follicle consists of cells that produce what two thyroid hormone?
thyroxine (T4)
triiodothyronine (T3)
71
What increases basal metabolic rate (BMR), the rate of oxygen consumption under standard or basal conditions( awake, at rest, and fasting)?
thyroid hormones
72
What plays an important role in the maintnence of normal body temperature?
thyroid hormone
73
What stimulates protein synthesis, increases the use of glucose and fatty acid for ATP production, increase the breakdown of triglycerides, and enhance cholesterol exertion, thus reducing blood cholesterol?
thyroid hormones
74
Thyroid hormones stimulate body growth, particularly what system?
nervous system
skeletal system
75
Together with what two hormones do thyroid hormones stimulate body growth, particularly what system?
human growth hormone
insulin
76
What is produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid?
calcitonin (CT)
77
What decreases the level of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the action of osteoclasts?
calcitonin (CT)
78
What are the cells that break down bone?
osteoclasts
79
What are small round masses of glandular tissue that are partially embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland?
parathyroid gland
80
Within the parathyroid gland, what are the secretory cells that release parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
chief cells
81
What is the major regulator of the levels of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions in the blood?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
82
What increases the number and activity of osteoclasts, which break down bone extracellular matrix and releases calcium and phosphate into the blood?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
83
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) produces what three changes in the kidneys?
- slows the rate at which calcium and magnesium are lost from blood into urine
- increases loss of phosphate from blood to urine
- promotes the formation of the hormone calcitrol
84
What is the active form of vitamin D?
calcitrol
85
What acts of the gut to increase the rate of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate absorption from food into the blood?
calcitrol
86
What can cause bone pain, kidney stones, HA, and abdominal pain?
elevated levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
87
What can cause carpopedal spasms, abdominal cramps, and muscle cramps?
low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
88
What is the flattened organ located in the curve of the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) and has both endocrine and exocrine functions?
pancreas
89
What are the cells of the pancreatic islet?
alpha cells
beta cells
90
What cells secrete the hormone glucagon?
alpha cells
91
What cells secrete the hormone insulin?
beta cells
92
Release of what cells is stimulated by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
alpha cells
93
What hormones main action is to increase blood glucose levels when it falls below normal?
glucagon
94
What helps move glucose into cells, especially muscle fibers, which lower blood glucose levels when it is too high?
insulin
95
What controls secretion of both glucagon and insulin via negative feedback?
levels of blood glucose
96
What promotes the uptake of amino acids into the body cells and increases the synthesis of proteins and fatty acid within the cells?
insulin
97
What is an important hormone when tissues are developing, growing and being repaired?
insulin
98
What are the two glands are on top of each kidney and has regions that produce different hormones?
adrenal glands
99
What consists of three zones, each of which synthesizes and secretes different steroid hormones?
adrenal cortex
100
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases hormones called mineral corticoids because of their effect on mineral homeostasis?
the outer zone (zona glomerulosa)
101
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases hormones called glucocorticoids because they affect glucose homeostasis?
the middle zone (zona fasciculata)
102
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases androgens (male and female sex hormones)
the inner zone (zona reticularis)
103
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases aldosterone?
the outer zone (zona glomerulosa)
104
What zone of the adrenal cortex releases cotisol?
the middle zone (zona fasciculata)
105
What is the inner most region of the adrenal gland, consists of sympathetic postganglionic cells of the autonomic nervous system that are specialized to secrete hormones known as catecholamines?
adrenal medulla
106
Where is epinephrine and norepinephrine released?
adrenal medulla
107
What is the major mineral corticoid?
aldosterone
108
What regulates hemostasis of two mineral ions, sodium (Na+) and potassium ions (K+)?
aldosterone
109
What increases reabsorption of Ma+ from the urine into the blood?
aldosterone
110
What helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume and promotes excretion of H+ in the urine? this removal of acids from the body can help prevent metabolic acidosis?
aldosterone
111
What occurs as part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway?
secretion of aldosterone
112
What conditions initiate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway?
- dehydration
- Na+ dehydration
- hemorrhage
conditions that decrease blood volume and blood pressure
113
Lowered blood pressure stimulates the kidney to secrete what enzyme?
renin
114
Renin promotes a reaction in the blood that from what?
angiotensin I
115
As blood flows through the lungs what enzyme converts inactive angiotensin I into the active hormone angiotensin II?
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
116
What stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone?
angiotensin II
117
What promotes the return of Na+ and water to the blood? increasing blood volume/pressure
aldosterone
118
What is the most abundant glucocorticoid?
cortisol
119
What are the actions of glucocorticoid?
- protein breakdown
- glucose formation
- breakdown of triglycerides
- anti-inflammatory effects
- depression of immune system
120
a low blood level of cortisol stimulates neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to secrete what?
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
121
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to secrete what?
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
122
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex to secrete what?
cortisol
123
What zone of the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak androgens?
zona reticularis
124
What zone of the adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids?
zona fascicula
125
What zone of the adrenal cortex produces mineral corticoids like aldosterone?
zona glomerulsa
126
In what sex does adrenal androgen play an important role?
female
127
After menopause, all female estrogen comes from where?
conversion of adrenal androgen?
128
In females what contributes to libido and are converted into estrogen by other body tissues?
adrenal androgens
129
What secretes small amounts of weak androgens in males?
adrenal cortex
130
What stimulates axillary and pubic hair growth in boys and girls and contributes to the growth spurt before puberty?
androgens secreted by the adrenal cortex
131
What is secreted by the anterior pituitary to stimulate androgen secretion from the adrenal cortex?
adrencocorticotopic hormone (ACTH)
132
During stressful situations and exercise impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate the sympathetic preganglionic neurons, which in turn stimulate the cells of the adrenal medulla to secrete what?
epinephrine and norepinephrine
133
What two hormones greatly augment the flight or flight response? and where do they come from?
epinephrin and norepinephrine from the adrenal cortex
134
How does epinephrine and norepinephrine increase the pumping output of the heart, which increase blood pressure?
by increasing heart rate and force of contraction
135
What increases blood flow to the heart, liver, skeletal muscles, and adipose tissue? under stress or excercise
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
136
What dilate the airways to the lungs and increases blood levels of glucose and fatty acid? under stress or exercise
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
137
What helps the body resist stress?
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
138
What dilate the airways to the lungs and increases blood levels of glucose and fatty acid? under stress or exercise
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine
139
What are the organs that produce gamets?
gonads
140
What are the two types of gamets?
- sperm
- oocytes
141
What are the female gonads?
ovaries
142
What are paired oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity?
ovaries
143
What female sex hormones do the ovaries produce?
- estrogen
- progesterone
144
What regulates the menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy, and prepare the mammary glands for lactations? Also helps maintain feminine body shape.
the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone along with FSH and LH
145
The ovaries produce what is a protein hormone that inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
inhibin
146
During pregnancy, the ovaries and placenta produce a peptide hormone called ___________ which increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis and helps dilate the uterine cervix during labor and delivery?
relaxin
147
What are the oval shaped gland that lie in the scrotum?
testes
148
What are the male gonads?
testes
149
The testes produce the primary androgen for males called?
testosterone
150
What regulates the production of sperm and stimulates the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics such as beard growth and deepening of the voice?
testosterone
151
How do the testes inhibit the secretion of FSH thus affecting spermatogenesis?
Sertoli cells produce inhibin
152
What is the small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain at the midline?
pineal gland
153
What hormone secreted by the pineal gland contributes to setting the body's biological clock (circadian rhythm)?
melatonin
154
What is one cause of muscle atrophy as we age?
human growth hormone decreases
155
As we age what causes decreased metabolic rate, increased body fat, and hypothyroidism
thyroid hormones
- T3
- T4
- calcitonin
156
As we age what causes blood glucose levels to increase faster?
insulin is released more slowly
157
As we age what causes the ovaries to decrease in size, they no longer respond to gonadotropins. Leading to conditions such as osteoporosis, high blood cholesterol, and atherosclerosis?
estrogen decreases
158
What is any stimulus that produces a stress response?
stressor
159
What is a sequence of bodily changes that can progress through stages?
stress response
160
What are some examples of stressors?
- heat or cold
- environmental poisons
- toxins given off by bacteria
- heavy bleeding from a wound or surgery
- strong emotional reaction
161
What may be pleasant or unpleasant and they vary among people and even within the same person at different times?
stressor
162
What is the first stage of stress response?
flight-ot-flight response
163
What is the second stage of stress response?
a slower resistance reaction
164
What is the third stage of stress response?
exhaustion
165
The first stage of stress response is initiated by nerve impulses from the __________ to the sympathetic division of the ___________ including the __________ , quickly mobilizes the body's resource for immediate physical activity?
- hypothalamus
- autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- adrenal medulla
166
The first stage of stress response brings huge amounts of ___________ and __________ to organs that are most active in warding off danger such as?
- glucose
- oxygen
- brain, skeletal muscles, heart
167
How do the kidneys react during the first stage of stress response?
- blood flow is reduced in the kidneys
- promotes the release of rennin activating rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway to increase water retention which helps preserve body fluid volume in severe bleeding?
168
What stress response stage is initiated in large by the hypothalamic releasing hormones and is a longer-lasting response?
second stage
169
What hormones are involved in the second stage of stress response?
- corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
- growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
- thyrotropin-releasing hormone
170
What stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH, which in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to release more cortisol?
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
171
What stimulates release of glucose by liver cells, breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids, and catabolism or proteins into amino acids to produce ATP or repair damaged cells?
cortisol
- cortisol also reduces inflammation
172
What cause the anterior pituitary to secrete human growth hormone (hGH)?
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
173
What stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone?
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
174
What stimulates the increased use of glucose for ATP production?
thyroif hormones promoted by TSH
175
The combined action of what two hormones supply additional ATP for metabolically active cells?
- hGH
- TSH
176
What helps the body continue fighting a stressor long after the fight-or-flight response dissipates?
resistance stage
177
What stage is generally successful in seeing us through a stressful episode, and our bodies return to normal?
resistance stage
178
What happens when the resourses of the body become so depleted that they cannot sustain the resitance stage?
third stage - exhaustion
179
Prolonged exposure to high levels of_________ involved in the resistance reaction causing wasting of muscles, suppression of the immune system, ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract, and failure of pancreatic beta cells?
cortisol and other hormones
180
People under stress are at greater risk for developing what?
- chronic disease
- dying prematurely
181
Release of what cells is stimulated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
beta cells
182
What is whipple's triad used for?
essential diagnoses of hypoglycemia
183
What is whipple's triad?
- blood glucose measure at <70mg/dl
- clinic syns and symptoms of hypoglycemia
- clinical signs and symptoms resolve with appropriate glucose elevation
184
What are clinical signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia?
- confusion
- irritability
- fatigue
- anxiety
- sweating
- irregular heart rhythm
- perioral paresthesia
185
Symptoms of hypoglycemia begin at what plasma glucose levels?
60 mg/dL
186
What plasma glucose levels range is where impairment of brain function may appear?
50 mg/dL
187
What are the two pricipal types of spontaneous hypoglycemia?
- fasting
- postprandial
188
What type of hypoglycemia is often subacute or chronic and usually presents with neuroglycopenia as its principal manifestation?
fasting
189
What are the two types of fasting hypoglycemia?
- subacute
- chronic
190
What type of hypoglycemia is relatively acute and is often heralded by symptoms of neurogenic autonomic discharge (sweating, palpitations, anxiety, tremulousness). Normally seen in patients with gastric/gastrointestinal surgery?
postprandial
191
What is the main energy source for the CNS?
glucose
192
With a decline in serum sugar, the brain quickly exhaust its reserve supply of carbohydrate fuel, resulting in?
CNS dysfunction
193
The clinical manifestation of hypoglycemia are divided into what two broad catagories?
- neuroglycopenic
- sympathomimetic
194
What type of clinical manifestation of hypoglycemia manifest most commonly by alterations in consciousness, lethargy, confusion, combativeness, agitation, and unresponsiveness, seizures, and focal neurological deficits?
neuroglycopenic
195
What type of clinical manifestation of hypoglycemia manifest with symptoms of anxiety, nervousness, irritability, nausea, vomiting, palpitations, and tremors?
sympathomimetic
196
Finger stick measurments are technique dependent, the most accurate way to asses glucose is?
laboratory measurments
197
What labs should be ordered for suspicion of autoimmune disorder?
serum antibody testing
- GAD-65
- anti-islet cell
- anti-insulin antibodies
198
what labs should be ordered for considering surreptitious cause?
- C peptide
- serial/glucose/insulin levels
- serum sulfonylurea
