endo Flashcards
1
Q
Name the Endocrine glands
A
Pituitary,
thyroid,
parathyroid,
adrenal,
pineal,
thymus
2
Q
The pancreas and gonads produce both ___________and _________products
A
The pancreas and gonads produce both hormones and exocrine products
3
Q
The hypothalamus has both ________functions and releases __________
A
The hypothalamus has both neural functions and releases hormones
4
Q
Other tissues and organs that produce hormones?
A
Adipose cells,
pockets of cells in the walls of the small intestine,
stomach,
kidneys,
_ heart_
5
Q
Hormones are
Chemical substances secreted by cells into the
A
** extracellular fluids**
6
Q
Hormones Regulate the ___________ of other cells
Have lag times ranging from___________
Tend to have _________effects
A
- ** metabolic function **
- ** seconds to hours**
- ** prolonged **
7
Q
Hormones are classified as
A
- *Amino acid-based
- *
- *Steroids
- *
8
Q
Amines, thyroxine, peptide, and protein hormones
Are classified as what hormones?
A
**
Amino acid-based**
9
Q
Synthesized from cholesterol &
Gonadal and adrenocortical hormones.
Are classified what type of hormone?
A
- *Steroids
- *
10
Q
Target cells
Response can
_______plasma membrane permeability
________ protein synthesis
_________or ______ enzyme systems
Induce _______activity
Stimulate ______
A
_ Alter_ plasma membrane permeability
Stimulate protein synthesis
Activate** or **deactivate enzyme systems
Induce secretory activity
Stimulate _mitosis _
11
Q
Hormones alter target cell activity by one of two mechanisms
1) Bind to receptor on plasma membrane
*Receptor coupled to intracellular response via ________
*_____amino acid–based hormones (except ____ hormone)
2) Directly activate gene
*Only ________ hormones can enter the cell to do this (lipid soluble)
A
Receptor coupled to intracellular response via second messengers
All amino acid–based hormones (except thyroid hormone)
Only steroid hormones can enter the cell to do this (lipid soluble)
12
Q
Target cell activation depends on three factors
A
- Blood levels of the hormone
- Relative number of receptors on the target cell
- **The affinity of those receptors for the hormone **
13
Q
target cells form more receptors in response to the hormone
A
**Up-regulation **
14
Q
– target cells lose receptors in response to the hormone
A
**Down-regulation **
15
Q
Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms –
______ or ______
______ and ____hormone are attached to plasma proteins
All others are ______
A
Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms –
free or bound
Steroids and thyroid hormone are attached to plasma proteins
All others are unencumbered
16
Q
Concentrations of circulating hormone reflect:
A
Rate of release
- *Speed of inactivation and removal from the body
- *
17
Q
_
Hormones_ are _removed from the blood_ by:
A
**
Degrading enzymes**
The kidneys
Liver enzyme systems
18
Q
Blood levels of hormones:
Are controlled by___________ systems
Vary only within a ________desirable range
A
Blood levels of hormones:
Are controlled by negative feedback systems
Vary only within a narrow desirable range
19
Q
_
Hormones_ are _synthesized and released_ in response to:
A
Humoral stimuli
Neural stimuli
Hormonal stimuli
20
Q
– secretion of hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients
A
Humoral stimuli
21
Q
Humoral stimuli –
Example: concentration of calcium ions in the blood
A
Declining blood Ca2+ concentration stimulates the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)
PTH causes Ca2+ concentrations to rise and the stimulus is removed
22
Q
– nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
A
Neural stimuli
23
Q
Neural stimuli – nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
Preganglionic sympathetic nervous system (SNS) fibers stimulate the _________ to secrete _______
A
Neural stimuli – nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
Preganglionic sympathetic nervous system (SNS) fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines
24
Q
– release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs
A
Hormonal stimuli
25
The\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hormones stimulate the \_\_\_\_\_pituitary
In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate \_\_\_\_\_\_\_to secrete still more hormones
The **_hypothalamic**_ hormones stimulate the _**anterior_** pituitary
In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate **_targets_** to secrete still more hormones
26
The\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ can override normal endocrine controls
For example, control of blood glucose levels
## Footnote
Normally the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_system maintains blood glucose
Under stress, the body needs more glucose
The ________ and the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_nervous system are activated to supply ample glucose
The **_nervous system_** can override normal endocrine controls
For example, control of blood glucose levels
Normally the **_endocrine_** system maintains blood glucose
Under stress, the body needs more glucose
The **_hypothalamus_** and the **_sympathetic_** nervous system are activated to supply ample glucose
27
– two-lobed organ that secretes 8 major hormones
**Pituitary gland**
28
_posterior lobe_ (neural tissue) and the infundibulum
Receives, stores, and releases hormones from the hypothalamus
**Neurohypophysis**
29
– anterior lobe, made up of glandular tissue
Synthesizes and secretes a number of hormones
**Adenohypophysis**
30
Pituitary (Hypophysis)
* The posterior lobe is a downgrowth of hypothalamic ________ tissue
* * Has a neural connection with the __________ (hypothalamic-hypophyseal
* tract)
* * Nuclei of the hypothalamus synthesize \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
* * These hormones are transported to the ________ pituitary
The posterior lobe is a downgrowth of hypothalamic **_neural_** tissue
Has a neural connection with the **_hypothalamus_** (hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)
Nuclei of the hypothalamus synthesize **_oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)_**
These hormones are transported to the **_posterio_**r pituitary
31
Oxytocin and ADH are stored in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_in the Posterior pituitary.
**Axon Terminals**
32
Oxytocin & ADH are released into the _______ when hypothalamic neurons fire.
**Blood**
33
Pituitary (Hypophysis)
The _anterior_ lobe of the _pituitary_ is an\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ tissue
There is no direct neural contact with the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Is a vascular connection, the **hypophyseal portal system,** consisting of:
The _________ capillary plexus
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_portal veins
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_capillary plexus
The anterior lobe of the pituitary is an **_epithelial_** tissue
There is no direct neural contact with the **_hypothalamus_**
Is a vascular connection, the **hypophyseal portal system**, consisting of:
The **_primary_** capillary plexus
The **_hypophyseal_** portal veins
The **_secondary_** capillary plexus
34
Hormone secreted by ______ in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_can sends chemical stimulus to the ________ pituitary
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hormones\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ the synthesis and release of hormones
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_hormones ____ \_\_\_\_the synthesis and release of hormones
Hormone secreted by **_neurons**_ in the _**hypothalamus**_ can sends chemical stimulus to the _**anterior_** pituitary
**_Releasing_** hormones **_stimulate_** the synthesis and release of hormones
**_Inhibiting_** hormones **_shut off t_**he synthesis and release of hormones
35
Adenophypophyseal(Anterior Pituitary) Hormones
The hormones of the adenohypophysis:
Adenophypophyseal(Anterior Pituitary) Hormones
## Footnote
**Growth Hormone (GH)**
**Prolactin (PRL)**
**Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)**
**Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)**
**Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)**
**Luteinizing hormone (LH)**
_**\*FLAT PG**_
36
The hormones of the adenohypophysis:
## Footnote
```
Growth Hormone (GH)
Prolactin (PRL)
```
The **tropic hormones** are?
**Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)**
**Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)**
**Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)**
**Luteinizing hormone (LH)**
**\*FLAT**
37
FSH and LH are ???
** gonadotropins**
38
The hormones of the adenohypophysis:
## Footnote
Initial stand for??
(GH)
(PRL)
The tropic hormones:
(TSH) (ACTH) (FSH) (LH)
The hormones of the adenohypophysis:
**Growth Hormone (GH)
Prolactin (PRL)**
The tropic hormones:
**Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)**
39
Growth Hormone (GH)
## Footnote
Produced by cells of the _______ lobe that:
Stimulate most cells, but target ______ and \_\_\_\_\_muscle
Promote _______ synthesis and encourage the use of \_\_\_\_\_\_for fuel
Most effects are mediated _________ by insulin-like growth factors (a.k.a\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
**_GH stimulates_** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_skeletal muscle, bone, and cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors
Growth Hormone (GH)
## Footnote
Produced by cells of the **_anterior_** lobe that:
Stimulate most cells, but target **_bone_** and **_skeletal_** muscle
Promote **_protein_** synthesis and encourage the use of **_fats_** for fuel
Most effects are mediated **_indirectly_** by insulin-like growth factors (a.k.a **_somatomedins_**)
GH stimulates **_liver_**, skeletal muscle, bone, and cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors
40
Growth Hormone (GH)
**_Indirect Action_** of GH?
IGFs (aka\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
Promote proteins synthesis and skeletal and muscle tissue growth (aka\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
Growth Hormone (GH)
**Insulin Growth Factors**
**Anabolic**
41
**_Direct Action_** of GH
## Footnote
Encourage use of\_\_\_\_\_\_for fuel (**lipolysis**)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_blood fatty acid levels
Inhibits glucose uptake by tissue cells(\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_) and release of glucose from liver(\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ blood glucose levels
Direct Action of GH
## Footnote
Encourage use of **_fats_** for fuel (lipolysis)
**_Elevate_** blood fatty acid levels
Inhibits glucose uptake by tissue cells and release of glucose from liver
**_Glycogenolysis and Gluconeogenisis_**
**_Elevates_** blood glucose levels
42
Growth Hormone (GH)
Secretion is regulated by?
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Secretion is regulated by…
Growth hormone–releasing hormone **_(GHRH)_** **_stimulates_** GH release
Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone **_(GHIH) inhibits_** GH release
43
GH **_Hypersecretion_** in **_children_** results in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\*Abnormally tall person with normal body proportions
**gigantism**
44
GH **_Hypersecretion_** in **_adults_** (*_after epiphyseal plates have sealed_*) results in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\*Overgrowth of bony areas still responsive to GH (hands, feet, face
**acromegaly**
45
GH Hyposecreation
**_Hypo_**secretion in **_adults_** usually causes ***_no problem_***
**_Hypo**_secretion in _**children_** results in *_slow long bone growth_* - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\*Body proportions usually normal
**pituitary dwarfism**
46
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)**_TSH_**
## Footnote
Stimulates the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_development and secretory activity of the \_\_\_\_\_\_
Thyroid gland controls \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Triggered by hypothalamic peptide \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
*_Rising blood levels*_ of _*thyroid hormones_* act on the pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
GHIH also inhibits\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
If you’re not growing, might as well turn down metabolism
Stimulates the **_normal**_ development and secretory activity of the _**thyroid_**
Thyroid gland controls **_metabolism_**
Triggered by hypothalamic peptide **_thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)_**
*_Rising blood levels*_ of _*thyroid hormones_* act on the pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of **_TRH and TSH_**
GHIH also inhibits **_TSH_**
If you’re not growing, might as well turn down metabolism
47
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)
Stimulates the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_to release steroid hormones (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_) ***_E.g., cortisol_***
Triggered by hypothalamic \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Rising blood levels of cortisol act on the pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
CRH release cycles in a ______ rhythm, _highest i_n the ________ and dropping throughout the day
But \_\_\_\_\_\_can trigger the hypothalamus to release CRH
Physical stress like loss of blood
Psychological stress; unhappy (like anxiety over an exam) and happy (like falling in love)
Low blood glucose
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)
## Footnote
Stimulates the **_adrenal cortex**_ to release steroid hormones (_**corticosteroids_**)
***_E.g., cortisol_***
Triggered by hypothalamic **_corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)_**
Rising blood levels of cortisol act on the pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of **_CRH and ACTH_**
CRH release cycles in a **_daily_** rhythm, _highest_ in the **_morning_** and dropping throughout the day
But **_stress_** can trigger the hypothalamus to release CRH
*_Physical stress_* like loss of blood
*_Psychological stress_*; unhappy (like anxiety over an exam) and happy (like falling in love)
Low blood glucose
48
**Gonadotropins** – follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
## Footnote
Regulate the function of the ______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**FSH** stimulates _________ (***_egg or sperm_***) production
Absent from the blood in ___________ boys and girls
Triggered by the hypothalamic _________ during and after puberty
Gonadotropins – follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Regulate the function of the ***_ovaries and testes_***
FSH stimulates ***_gamete_*** (egg or sperm) production
Absent from the blood in ***_prepubertal_*** boys and girls
*_Triggered_* by the hypothalamic ***_gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)_*** during and after puberty
49
Functions of Gonadotropins in **_Females_**
## Footnote
In females
_LH works with FSH_ to cause _______ of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
_LH works alone_ to trigger _________ (expulsion of the egg from the follicle)
LH promotes synthesis and release of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Functions of Gonadotropins in **_Females_**
## Footnote
*_LH works with FSH_* to cause **_maturation_** of the ***_ovarian follicle_***
*_LH works alone_* to trigger **_ovulation_** (expulsion of the egg from the follicle)
LH promotes synthesis and release of **_estrogens_** and **_progesterone_**
50
Functions of Gonadotropins in **_Males_**
## Footnote
In males
LH stimulates\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ cells of the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to produce \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
LH is also referred to as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Functions of Gonadotropins in **_Males_**
## Footnote
LH stimulates **_interstitial**_ cells of the _**testes_** to produce **_testosterone_**
LH is also referred to as **_interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)_**
51
Prolactin
## Footnote
*_With other_* hormones, stimulates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_development
In pregnancy and nursing, stimulates \_\_\_\_\_\_production
*_Function in males not well understood_*
***_Control:_***
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_from hypothalamus
_____________________ from hypothalamus
***_Estrogen_***
*_With other_* hormones, stimulates **_mammary_** gland development
In pregnancy and nursing, stimulates **_milk_** production
*_Function in males not well understood_*
***_Control:_***
**_Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH or dopamine)_** from hypothalamus
**_Prolactin Releasing factors (PRF)_** from hypothalamus
***_Estrogen_***
52
Rising \_\_\_\_\_\_ *_before_* ______ stimulates ***_PRL(prolactin)_***, stimulates \_\_\_\_\_, and inhibits \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
But is too brief to cause milk production, just breast \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Rising (placental) estrogen, (placental) \_\_\_\_\_\_, and placental _________ *_toward end_* of pregnancy stimulates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, stimulates\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, and inhibits \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
*_ex; Milk production_*
Suckling after birth stimulates nipple \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_which send \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_impulses to hypothalamus, stimulating PRF and inhibiting PIH
*_ex; Milk production for next feeding_*
Rising **_estrogen**_ before _**menstruation_** stimulates PRL, stimulates **_PRF_**, and inhibits **_PIH_**
But is too brief to cause milk production, just breast **_swelling**_ and _**tenderness_**
Rising (placental) estrogen, (placental) **_progesterone_**, and placental **_lactogen_** toward end of pregnancy stimulates **_PRL_**, stimulates **_PRF,_** and inhibits **_PIH_**
***_ex; Milk production_***
Suckling after birth stimulates nipple **_mechanoreceptors_** which send **_afferent_** impulses to hypothalamus, stimulating PRF and inhibiting PIH
***_ex; Milk production for next feeding_***
53
The Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic Hormone
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – made of axons of hypothalamic neurons, stores _*antidiuretic hormone **(ADH**)*_ and oxytocin
ADH and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_are synthesized in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
ADH influences \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_balance
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ stimulates*_\_\_\_\_\_\__*muscle contraction in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
The Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic Hormones
## Footnote
**_Posterior pituitary_** – *_made of axons of hypothalamic neurons, **stores**_* antidiuretic hormone (**ADH**) and oxytocin
ADH and **_oxytocin_** are synthesized in the **_hypothalamus_**
ADH influences **_water_** balance
**_Oxytocin_** stimulates **_smooth_** muscle contraction in **_breasts_** and **_uterus_**
54
Oxytocin
## Footnote
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a strong stimulant of uterine contraction
Regulated by a _______ feedback mechanism to oxytocin in the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
This leads to increased intensity of\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ contractions, ending in birth
Oxytocin also triggers ______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (*_“letdown” reflex_*) in women producing milk
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_oxytocic drugs are used to induce or hasten labor
**_Oxytocin_** is a strong stimulant of uterine contraction
Regulated by a **_positive_** feedback mechanism to oxytocin in the **_blood_**
This leads to increased intensity of **_uterine_** contractions, ending in birth
Oxytocin also triggers **_milk ejection_** (“letdown” reflex) in women producing milk
**_Synthetic_** and **_natural_** oxytocic drugs are used to induce or hasten labor
55
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
## Footnote
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_- urine production
___________ - inhibits/prevents urine productions
ADH is\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ hormone
____________ in hypothalamus monitor the solute concentration of the blood
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_solutes, ADH _______ water (less urine)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_solutes, ADH is not \_\_\_\_\_\_\_, thus causing water loss (urination)
Alcohol \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ADH release and *_causes copious urine output_*
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ADH (e.g., blow to head that damages hypothalamus or posterior pituitary) causes ______ \_\_\_\_\_\_
**_Diuresis_** - urine production
**_Antidiuretic_** - inhibits/prevents urine productions
ADH is **_antidiuretic_** hormone
**_Osmoreceptors_** in hypothalamus monitor the solute concentration of the blood
**_High_** solutes, _ADH_ **_**_pr_**eserves_** water (less urine)
**Low** solutes, _ADH is not_ **_**_re_**leased_**, thus causing water loss (urination)
Alcohol _**inhibits** ADH_ release and *_causes copious urine output_*
I**_nadequate_** ADH (e.g., blow to head that damages hypothalamus or posterior pituitary) causes **_diabetes insipidus_**
56
When ovaries secrete estrogen in response to the hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
this is an example of what \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_regulation??
Hormonal
57
A major difference between Neurotransmiters and Hormones is that Hormones are secreted into?
Blood
58
Hormones secreted into the
**hypophyseal portal system **
are delivered to
**Adenohypophysis – anterior lobe of pituitary**
59
Long bone growth promoting effects are actually mediated by
**SOMATOMEDINS**
60
A Goiter is the lack of?
Iodine
61
Target Organ of the Thyroid releasing hormone
Anterior Pituitary
62
PT is displaying high vloumes of urine output & severe dehydration, what is mostly like the cause
**_Hypo_**secreation of ADH
63
Thyroid Gland
## Footnote
Largest endocrine gland, located in the anterior neck, consists of two lateral lobes connected by a median tissue mass called the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Composed of *_f**_olli_**cles that produce_* the glycoprotein \_\_\_\_
Colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) fills the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Other endocrine cells, the parafollicular cells, produce the hormone calcitonin
Largest endocrine gland, located in the anterior neck, consists of two lateral lobes connected by a median tissue mass called the **_isthmus_**
Composed of *_follicles that produce_* the glycoprotein **_thyroglobulin_**
Colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) fills the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of **_thyroid hormone_**
Other endocrine cells, the *_parafollicular cells, produce_* the hormone **_calcitonin_**
64
Thyroid Hormone (TH)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – major metabolic hormone
Consists of two related iodine-containing compounds
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; thyroglobulin plus four bound iodine atoms
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; thyroglobulin with three bound iodine atoms
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ synthesized in follicle cells and discharged into the lumen
I2 and released into the lumen too
_______ attaches to thyroglobulin forming T1 and T2
T1 and T2 linked together to form \_\_\_and \_\_\_\_
Colloid is then \_\_\_\_\_\_and combined with a \_\_\_\_\_, where T3 and T4 are cleaved and diffuse into the \_\_\_\_\_\_
**_Thyroid hormone_** – major metabolic hormone
Consists of two related iodine-containing compounds
***_T4 – thyroxine_***; thyroglobulin plus four bound iodine atoms
**_T3 – triiodothyronine_**; thyroglobulin with three bound iodine atoms
**_Thyroglobulin_** synthesized in follicle cells and discharged into the lumen
I2 and released into the lumen too
**_Iodine_** attaches to thyroglobulin forming T1 and T2
T1 and T2 linked together to form **_T3 and T4_**
Colloid is then **_endocytosed**_ and combined with a _**lysosome_**, where T3 and T4 are cleaved and diffuse into the **_bloodstream_**
65
Transport and Regulation of TH
## Footnote
TRH from \_\_\_\_\_\_triggers TSH released from \_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_binds to target cell (follicle cells of thyroid gland)
Mostly \_\_\_and some T3 released from follicle
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_primarily responsible for effects of TH
However enzymes in \_\_\_\_\_and other peripheral tissues can convert T4 to T3
Virtually every cell in the body responds to TH, increasing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Regulation is by _______ feedback
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_TH shut off TSH
But TRH can overcome the negative feedback, for example in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
*TRH* from **_hypothalamus_** *triggers TSH released from* **_anterior pitutiary_**
**_TSH_** binds to target cell (follicle cells of thyroid gland)
Mostly **_T4_** and some T3 released from follicle
**_T3_** primarily responsible for effects of TH
However enzymes in **_liver_** and other peripheral tissues can convert T4 to T3
Virtually every cell in the body responds to TH, increasing **_metabolic rate_**
Regulation is by **_negative_** feedback
**_High_** TH shut off TSH
But TRH can overcome the negative feedback, for example in **_pregnancy_**
66
Effects of Thyroid Hormone
## Footnote
________ rates of oxygen consumption and energy consumption
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_production
________ heart rate and force contraction
Results in increased ______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**_TH_** also involved in-
Regulating \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Developing _______ and ________ systems
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and __________ capabilities
* *_Elevates_** rates of oxygen consumption and energy consumption
* *_Heat_** production
**_Increases_** heart rate and force contraction
Results in increased **_blood pressure_**
*_TH_* also involved in-
Regulating **_tissue growth_**
Developing **_skeletal_** and **_nervous_** systems
**_Maturation_** and **_reproductive_** capabilities
67
***_Hypo_***thyroidism
***_ Hypo_***thyroid disorders may result from inadequate TSH, iodine deficiency (causing lack of\_\_\_\_), or thyroid gland removal
***_Hypot_***hyroidism in ***_adults_*** - __________ - low metabolic rate, feeling chilled, thick dry skin, lethargy, mental sluggishness, and puffy eyes
If is a ***_result of lack of iodine, thyroid gland enlarges_*** - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
***_Hypo_***thyroidism in ***_children_*** - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_- mental retardation, disproportionately sized body and thick tongue and neck
***_Hypo_***thyroid disorders may result from inadequate TSH, iodine deficiency (causing *_lack of **TH**_*), or thyroid gland removal
***_Hypo_***thyroidism in adults - **_Myxedema_** - low metabolic rate, feeling chilled, thick dry skin, lethargy, mental sluggishness, and puffy eyes
If is a result of lack of iodine, thyroid gland enlarges - **_goiter_**
***_Hypo_***thyroidism in children - **_Cretinism_** - mental retardation, disproportionately sized body and thick tongue and neck
68
***_Hyper_***thyroidism
Most common ***_hype_**r*thyroidism is _____ \_\_\_\_\_\_
Elevated metabolic rate, sweating, nervousness, weight loss despite adequate food intake
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_due to tissue becoming edematous then fibrous
Serum contains _________ that mimic TSH
___________ disease
Most common hyperthyroidism is **_Grave’s Disease_**
Elevated metabolic rate, sweating, nervousness, weight loss despite adequate food intake
**_Exophthalmos_** due to tissue becoming edematous then fibrous
Serum contains **_antibodies_** that mimic TSH
**_Autoimmune_** disease
69
Plasma Ca++ is closely regulated to prevent changes in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_excitability
## Footnote
\_\_\_\_\_\_-% of Ca++ in skeleton
Remaining 1% \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(0.9%) or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(0.1%)
________ Ca++ in SR important in excitation-contraction coupling (A&P 1)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_Ca++ needed for neuromuscular excitability
***_Low extracellular_ Ca***++ _______ Na+ influx (due to a Na+-Ca++ antiporter)
Resting potential closer to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Skeletal muscle may spontaneously \_\_\_\_\_
\*Of diaphragm can lead to \_\_\_\_\_\_
***_High extracellular Ca++ _***Na+ influx
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_neuromuscular excitability
But causes increased _________ muscle contraction!! (more on this later)
Plasma Ca++ is closely regulated to prevent changes in **_neuromuscular_** excitability
## Footnote
**_99%_** of Ca++ in skeleton
Remaining 1% **_intracellular (0.9%)**_ or _**extracellular (0.1%)_**
**_Intracellular_** Ca++ in SR important in *excitation-contraction coupling* (A&P 1)
**_Extracellular_** Ca++ needed for _neuromuscular excitability_
*_Low extracellular_* Ca++ **_increases_** Na+ influx (due to a Na+-Ca++ antiporter)
Resting potential closer to **_threshold_**
Skeletal muscle may spontaneously **_spasm_**
Of diaphragm can lead to **_asphyxiation_**
*_High extracellular_* Ca++ **_decreases_** Na+ influx
**_Depresses_** neuromuscular excitability
But causes increased **_cardiac_** muscle contraction!! (more on this later)
70
Calcitonin
## Footnote
A peptide hormone produced by the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(C cells)
Lowers blood calcium levels in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Calcitonin targets the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, where it:
Inhibits \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_activity (and thus bone resorption) and release of calcium from the bone \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_calcium uptake and incorporation into the bone matrix
Regulated by a\_\_\_\_\_(calcium ion concentration in the blood) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_feedback mechanism
A _peptide hormone produced_ by the **_parafollicular_**(C cells)
Lowers blood calcium levels in **_children_**
**_Antagonist_** to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Calcitonin targets the **_skeleton_**, where it:
Inhibits **_osteoclast_** activity (and thus bone resorption) and release of calcium from the bone **_matrix_**
**_Stimulates_** calcium uptake and incorporation into the bone matrix
Regulated by a **_humoral_** (calcium ion concentration in the blood) **_negative_** feedback mechanism
71
Parathyroid Glands
## Footnote
Tiny glands embedded in the\_\_\_\_\_aspect of the thyroid
Usually 4 but can be as many as 8
Secrete \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
*_Most important hormone_* controlling\_\_\_\_\_\_balance in the blood
Tiny glands embedded in the **_posterior_** aspect of the thyroid
Usually 4 but can be as many as 8
Secrete **_PTH (parathyroid hormone or parathormone)_**
*_Most important hormone_* controlling **_calcium_** balance in the blood
72
Effects of Parathyroid Hormone
## Footnote
PTH release increases Ca2+ in the blood as it:
Stimulates \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_to digest bone matrix
Enhances the reabsorption of Ca2+ and the secretion of phosphate by the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Increases absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal by activating \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
*_Risin_*_g Ca2+_ in the blood __________ PTH release
PTH release increases Ca2+ in the blood as it:
Stimulates **_osteoclasts_** to digest bone matrix
Enhances the reabsorption of Ca2+ and the secretion of phosphate by the **_kidneys_**
Increases absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal by activating **_vitamin D_**
*_Rising Ca2+_* in the blood **_inhibits_** PTH release
73
***_Hyperpara_***thyroidism
## Footnote
From a parathyroid gland\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Calcium leached from\_\_\_\_\_\_
Bones soft and deformed
Mineral salts replace with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_connective tissue
Elevated blood Ca2+ level (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
Depression of nervous system
Abnormal \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Weakened\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_muscles
Formation of\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ as calcium salts precipitate in kidney tubules
From a parathyroid gland **_tumor_**
Calcium leached from **_bones_**
Bones soft and deformed
Mineral salts replace with **_fibrous_** connective tissue
Elevated blood Ca2+ level (**_hypercalcemia_**)
Depression of nervous system
Abnormal **_reflexes_**
Weakened **_skeletal_** muscles
Formation of **_kidney stones_** as calcium salts precipitate in kidney tubules
74
***_Hyperpara_***thyroidism
## Footnote
From parathyroid gland trauma or removal of thyroid gland
Or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_deficiencies (needed for PTH secretion)
Increased excitability of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_:
Muscle twitches
Convulsions
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_paralysis, death
From parathyroid gland trauma or removal of thyroid gland
Or **_Mg (Magneseum) _**deficiencies (needed for PTH secretion)
Increased excitability of **_neurons:_**
\*Muscle twitches
\*Convulsions
**_Respiratory_** paralysis, death
75
Pituitary Gland Summary
Pituitary Gland Summary
76
Endocrine System: Overview1
Endocrine System: Overview1
77
Endocrine Overview2
Endocrine Overview2
78
Stress
## Footnote
Stress
Fright
Heavy Exercise
Emotional stress; happy or unhappy
Hypoglycemia
Nervous system informs ____________ of stress
Hypothalamus controls\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop kidneys
_______________ – neural tissue, part of SNS
_______________ – glandular tissue
Thus stress response is both \_\_\_\_\_\_\_and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Stress
Fright
Heavy Exercise
Emotional stress; happy or unhappy
Hypoglycemia
Nervous system informs **_hypothalamus_** of stress
Hypothalamus controls **_adrenal glands_**
Paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop kidneys
**_Inner adrenal medulla_** – neural tissue, part of SNS
**_Outer adrenal cortex_** – glandular tissue
Thus stress response is both **_endocrine_** and **_nervous_**
79
Short-term Stress and the Adrenal Medulla
## Footnote
Nervous Review (SNS fibers)
______ bronchioles
To maximize ventilation
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ rate and force of heart beat
Which increases blood pressure
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_most blood vessels
Which increase \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
But \_\_\_\_\_\_\_coronary blood vessels and vessels supplying skeletal muscle
Which diverts blood from _______ viscera and \_\_\_\_\_to skeletal muscle and heart
Sweat
Release \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Nervous Review (SNS fibers)
**_Dilate_** bronchioles
To maximize ventilation
**_Increased_** rate and force of heart beat
Which increases blood pressure
**_Vasoconstrict_** most blood vessels
Which increase **_blood pressure_**
But **_dilate_** coronary blood vessels and vessels supplying skeletal muscle
Which diverts blood from **_abdominal_** viscera and **_skin_** to skeletal muscle and heart
Sweat
Release **_catecholamines_**
80
Short-term Stress and the Adrenal Medulla
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are in vesicles and can be rapidly released (amount at peak at 30 sec)
75% \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_-
Dilate bronchioles
Dilate coronary blood vessels and vessels supplying skeletal muscle
Increased rate and force of heart beat
Spare glucose-
_______ insulin release and promote _______ release
To keep blood glucose \_\_\_\_\_\_
Promote lipolysis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenisis
25% \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
_____________ vasoconstriction to raise blood pressure
**_Catecholamines_** are in vesicles and can be rapidly released (amount at peak at 30 sec)
75% **_Epinephrine_**
Dilate bronchioles
Dilate coronary blood vessels and vessels supplying skeletal muscle
Increased rate and force of heart beat
Spare glucose-
**_Inhibit_** insulin release and promote **_glucagon_** release
To keep blood glucose **_high_**
Promote lipolysis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenisis
25% **_Norepinephrine_**
**_Peripheral_** vasoconstriction to raise blood pressure
81
Disorders of the Adrenal Medulla
## Footnote
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_of catecholamines
None known
Would not be a problem because of overlap with neural aspects of SNS
Hypersecretion
A rare tumor called a _____________ secrets large amounts of catecholamines
What would be 3 symptoms of this tumor?
Treatment is _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of tumor
**_Hyposecretion_** of catecholamines
None known
Would not be a problem because of overlap with neural aspects of SNS
Hypersecretion
A rare tumor called a **_pheochromocytoma_** *_secrets large amounts of catecholamines_*
What would be the symptoms of this tumor?
**_Hypertension (high BP), hyperglycemia, and excessive sweating_**
Treatment is **_surgical remova_**l of tumor
82
Adrenal Cortex
## Footnote
Synthesizes and releases steroid hormones called \_\_\_\_\_
Different corticosteroids are produced in each of the three layers
Zona _________ – ___________ (chiefly \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
Zona\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – ___________ (chiefly \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
Zona ________ – \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(chiefly \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_)
Synthesizes and releases steroid hormones called **_corticosteroids_**
Different corticosteroids are produced in each of the three layers
Zona **_glomerulosa – mineralocorticoids_** (chiefly **_aldosterone_**)
Zona **_fasciculata – glucocorticoids_** (chiefly **_cortisol_**)
Zona **_reticularis – gonadocorticoids_** (chiefly **_androgens_**)
83
Mineralocorticoids
## Footnote
Regulate electrolytes in extracellular fluids
_________ – ***_most important_*** mineralocorticoid
Maintains Na+ balance by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_excretion of sodium from the body
Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the ______ (and secretion of \_\_\_\_\_)
Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by:
Rising blood levels of\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_blood Na+
_______ blood volume or pressure
Regulate electrolytes in extracellular fluids
**_Aldosterone_** – ***_most important_*** mineralocorticoid
Maintains Na+ balance by **_reducing_** excretion of sodium from the body
Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the **_kidneys_** (and secretion of **_K+_**)
Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by:
Rising blood levels of **_K+_**
**_Low_** blood Na+
**_Decreasing_** blood volume or pressure
84
Major Mechanisms of Aldosterone Secretion
## Footnote
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_-angiotensin mechanism
Kidneys release ____ when blood volume declines, leads to angiotensin II that stimulates __________ release
Plasma concentration of sodium and potassium
Directly influences the zona ___________ cells
(-----------)
Causes small increases of aldosterone during stress
Atrial natriuretic peptide ***(ANP)***
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_activity of the zona glomerulosa
**_Renin_**-angiotensin mechanism
Kidneys release **_renin_** when blood volume declines, leads to angiotensin II that stimulates **_aldosterone_** release
Plasma concentration of sodium and potassium
Directly influences the zona **_glomerulosa_** cells
**_ACTH_**
Causes small increases of aldosterone during stress
Atrial natriuretic peptide ***(ANP)***
**_Inhibits_** activity of the zona glomerulosa
85
Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
## Footnote
Help the body resist stress by:
Sparing ________ (for the brain)
Promotes ________ (formation of glucose from noncarbohydrates)
Promotes fatty acid release from \_\_\_\_\_\_tissue and amino acid release from other cells
Suppressing the _________ system
***_“anti-inflammatory”_***
Help the body resist stress by:
Sparing **_glucose_** (for the brain)
Promotes **_gluconeogenesis_** (formation of glucose from noncarbohydrates)
Promotes fatty acid release from **_adipose_** tissue and amino acid release from other cells
Suppressing the **_immune_** system
***_“anti-inflammatory”_***
86
Stress and the Adrenal Gland
Stress and the Adrenal Gland
87
Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)
## Footnote
Small amount of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(male sex hormones, e.g. testosterone) secreted
Large amount produced in male \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Small amount of\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ secreted
*_Gonadocorticoids_* contribute to:
The onset of ________ and hair growth
Sex drive in adult\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)
## Footnote
Small amount of **_androgens_** (male sex hormones, e.g. testosterone) secreted
Large amount produced in male **_testes_**
Small amount of **_estrogen_** secreted
*_Gonadocorticoids_* contribute to:
The onset of **_puberty_** and hair growth
Sex drive in adult **_females _**
88
Disorders of the Adrenal Cortex
## Footnote
*_Andrenogenital syndrome_*
A tumor of the zona ________ leads to masculization of females (e.g., a beard)
I tumor produces estrogen, can lead to enlarged\_\_\_\_\_\_in males
*_\*Cushing’s disease/syndrome
\*Addison’s disease
_*
***_Andrenogenital syndrome_***
A tumor of the zona **_reticularis_** leads to masculization of *females* (e.g., a *_beard_*)
I tumor produces estrogen, can lead to enlarged **_breasts_** in *_males_*
***_Cushing’s disease/syndrome
Addison’s disease
_***
89
**_Cushing’s disease/syndrome_**
Excessive levels of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Cushing’s disease due to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_-releasing tumor
Cushing’s syndrome due to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_drugs
Resemble protracted and exaggerated _____ response
Lipid reserves mobilized, peripheral proteins broken down
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_tissue redistribution leads to ***_“moon-face”_*** and ***_“buffalo hump”_***
Immune system \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Treatment is _________ tumor or discontinue \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_drugs
**_Cushing’s disease/syndrome_**
Excessive levels of **_glucocorticoids_**
Cushing’s disease due to **_ACTH_**-releasing tumor
Cushing’s syndrome due to **_glucocorticoid_** drugs
Resemble protracted and exaggerated **_stress_** response
Lipid reserves mobilized, peripheral proteins broken down
**_Adipose_** tissue redistribution leads to “moon-face” and “buffalo hump”
Immune system **_depressed_**
Treatment is **_remove_** tumor or *discontinue **_glucocorticoid_*** drugs
90
**_Addison’s disease_**
___________ mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids
E.g., from\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ deficiency
Become ______ and lose weight
Low blood pressure and blood volume
________ can *_not be tolerate_*d (minor infection or injury can lead to potentially fatal blood pressure drop)
**_Addison’s disease_**
## Footnote
**_Inadequate_** mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids
E.g., from **_ACTH_** deficiency
Become **_weak_** and lose weight
* *_Low_** blood pressure and blood volume
* *_Stress_** can *_not be tolerated_* (minor infection or injury can lead to potentially fatal blood pressure drop)
91
Pancreas
## Footnote
A\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_gland, which has both ______ and ________ cells, located *_behind the stomach_*
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_cells produce an enzyme-rich juice used for digestion (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ product)
Pancreatic islets (islets of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_) produce hormones (\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ products)
The islets contain two major cell types:
Alpha () cells that produce \_\_\_\_\_\_
Beta () cells that produce \_\_\_\_\_\_
A **_triangular_** gland, which has both **_exocrine**_ and _**endocrine_** cells, located *_behind the stomach_*
**_Acinar_** cells produce an enzyme-rich juice used for digestion (**_exocrine_** product)
Pancreatic islets (islets of **_Langerhans_**) produce hormones (**_endocrine_** products)
The islets contain two major cell types:
* _Alpha_* () cells that produce **_glucagon_**
* _Beta_* () cells that produce **_insulin_**
92
**Glucagon**
## Footnote
A 29-amino-acid polypeptide hormone that is a potent ___________ agent
Its major target is the \_\_\_\_\_\_, where it promotes:
__________ – the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
___________ – synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates
Release of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_to the blood from \_\_\_\_\_cells
A 29-amino-acid polypeptide hormone that is a potent **_hyperglycemic_** agent
Its major target is the **_liver_**, where it promotes:
**_Glycogenolysis_** – the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
**_Gluconeogenesis_** – synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates
Release of **_glucose_** to the blood from **_liver_** cells
93
Insulin
## Footnote
A 51-amino-acid protein consisting of two _____ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_chains linked by disulfide bonds
Synthesized as part of proinsulin and then excised by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, releasing functional insulin
Insulin:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ blood glucose levels
Enhances transport of _________ into body cells
Counters metabolic activity that would _______ blood glucose levels
Catalyzes the oxidation of glucose for ______ production
Polymerizes glucose to form \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Converts glucose to _____ (particularly in adipose tissue)
Insulin
## Footnote
A 51-amino-acid protein consisting of two **_amino acid_** chains linked by disulfide bonds
Synthesized as part of proinsulin and then excised by **_enzymes_**, releasing functional insulin
Insulin:
**_Lowers_** blood glucose levels
Enhances transport of **_glucose_** into body cells
Counters metabolic activity that would **_enhance_** blood glucose levels
Catalyzes the oxidation of glucose for **_ATP_** production
Polymerizes glucose to form **_glycogen_**
Converts glucose to **_fat_** (particularly in adipose tissue)
94
The hyperglycemic effects of glucagon and the hypoglycemic effects of insulin
The hyperglycemic effects of glucagon and the hypoglycemic effects of insulin
95
**Diabetes Mellitus (DM)**
## Footnote
Results from *_hypo**secretion***_ or _*hypo**activity**_* of _insulin_
The *three cardinal signs of DM* are:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_– huge urine output
_________ – excessive thirst
_________ – excessive hunger and food consumption
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – excessive insulin secretion, resulting in hypoglycemia
**Diabetes Mellitus (DM)**
## Footnote
Results from *_hypo_****_secretio_*n** or *_hypo_***_*a*ctivity_** of _insulin_
The t*hree cardinal signs of DM* are:
* *_Polyuria_** – huge urine output
* *_Polydipsia_** – excessive thirst
* *_Polyphagia_** – excessive hunger and food consumption
**_Hyperinsulinism_** – excessive insulin secretion, resulting in hypoglycemia
96
**Gonads: Female**
## Footnote
Paired ovaries in the abdominopelvic cavity produce \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
They are responsible for:
Maturation of the _________ organs
Appearance of\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_sexual characteristics
Breast development and cyclic changes in the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_mucosa
**Gonads: Female**
## Footnote
Paired ovaries in the abdominopelvic cavity produce **_estrogens_** and **_progesterone_**
They are responsible for:
Maturation of the **_reproductive_** organs
Appearance of **_secondary_** sexual characteristics
Breast development and cyclic changes in the **_uterine_** mucosa
97
**Gonads: Male**
## Footnote
Testes located in an extra-abdominal sac (scrotum) produce \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Testosterone:
Initiates maturation of male __________ organs
Causes appearance of __________ sexual characteristics and sex drive
Is necessary for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_production
Maintains \_\_\_\_\_\_\_organs in their functional state
**Gonads: Male**
## Footnote
Testes located in an extra-abdominal sac (scrotum) produce **_testosterone_**
Testosterone:
Initiates maturation of male **_reproductive_** organs
Causes appearance of **_secondary_** sexual characteristics and sex drive
Is necessary for **_sperm_** production
Maintains **_sex_** organs in their functional state
98
**Pineal Gland**
## Footnote
Small gland hanging from the roof of the third\_\_\_\_\_of the brain
Secretory product is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is involved with:
Day/Night cycles
Physiological processes that show rhythmic variations (body temperature, sleep, appetite)
**Pineal Gland**
## Footnote
Small gland hanging from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain
Secretory product is **_melatonin_**
**_Melatonin_** is involved with:
Day/night cycles
Physiological processes that show rhythmic variations (body temperature, sleep, appetite)
99
Thymus
## Footnote
Lobulated gland located deep to the \_\_\_\_\_\_
Secretes hormones essential for the development of the *_T lymphocytes (T cells) of the immune system_*
Thus only needed during T cell \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, atrophies with age
Thymus
Lobulated gland located deep to the **_sternum_**
Secretes hormones essential for the development of the *_T lymphocytes (T cells) of the immune system_*
Thus only needed during T cell **_development_**, atrophies with age
100
Other Hormone-Producing Structures
## Footnote
\_\_\_\_\_ – produces atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which reduces blood pressure, blood volume, and blood sodium concentration
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – enteroendocrine cells release local-acting digestive hormones
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – releases hormones that influence the course of pregnancy
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ – secrete erythropoietin, which signals the production of red blood cells
\_\_\_\_\_\_ – produces *_cholecalciferol_*, the precursor of vitamin D
\_\_\_\_\_\_ – *_releases leptin_*, which is involved in the sensation of satiety, and stimulates increased energy expenditure
Other Hormone-Producing Structures
## Footnote
* *_Heart_** – produces atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which reduces blood pressure, blood volume, and blood sodium concentration
* *_Gastrointestinal tract_** – enteroendocrine cells release local-acting digestive hormones
* *_Placenta_** – releases hormones that influence the course of pregnancy
* *_Kidneys_** – secrete erythropoietin, which signals the production of red blood cells
* *_Skin_** – produces *_cholecalciferol_*, the precursor of vitamin D
* *_Adipose tissue_** – *_releases leptin,_* which is involved in the sensation of satiety, and stimulates increased energy expenditure
