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Physiology 210 > Endocrine > Flashcards

Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

What is the endocrine function

A

Mood, Reproduction, Digestion/excretion, intermediary metabolism, growth, puberty

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2
Q

What are the symptoms of endocrine dysfunction

A

Growth/retardation, weight gain/ loss, skin pigmentation/dryness/acne/swelling, sexual characteristics

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3
Q

How is the nervous system homeostatically regulated?

A

Precise, rapid, finely adjusted, short-term regulation

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4
Q

How is the endocrine system endocrine system homeostatically regulated?

A

Slower, more sustain control over long-term processes

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5
Q

What are exocrine glands?

A

Empty their secretions into body cavities or onto body surfaces by tubular ducts

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6
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Ductless glands that release their secretions internally into the bloodstream

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7
Q

What are the characteristics of endocrine glands?

A

Paired or unpaired
Organs or scattered cells
One or more cell-types
Cells may secrete one or more hormones
Cells in clumps, cords, or scattered
Cells may have smooth ER or rough ER
Cell may/may not have secretory vesicles
Cells may/may not have lipid droplets

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8
Q

What are the glands of the endocrine system?

A

Hypothalamus/pituitary
Pineal gland
Thyroid
Parathyroids
Thymus
Adrenals
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testes

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9
Q

What do endocrine glands secrete and where?

A

Chemical messengers into the circulatory system

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10
Q

What is paracrine signalling?

A

Target cells in close proximity to the site of release of paracrine substances

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11
Q

What is autocrine signalling?

A

Acts on same cell that secreted the substance

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12
Q

What is endocrine signalling?

A

Target cells in one or more distant places in the body and released into the bloodstream

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13
Q

What is nervous signalling?

A

A neurotransmitter is released into a synapse close to the target site which is either another neuron or an effector cell

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14
Q

What is neuroendocrine signalling?

A

Release messenger molecules into the blood

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15
Q

What are the characteristics of hormones?

A

Chemical messengers that regulate homeostasis
Have high potency
Act at specific receptors
Act with a latency of response (actions are not immediate)
Have limited storage
Are secreted irregularly
Mostly carried in plasma by binding proteins
Are not an energy source
Are not incorporated into other molecules

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16
Q

What are the two main groups of hormones?

A

Steroid

Protein

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17
Q

What are steroid hormones?

A

Derived from cholesterol

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18
Q

How are steroid hormones made?

A

Cholesterol enters the cell bound to LDL
It moves to the mitochondria where is undergoes the first step in steroid biogenesis
Released by diffusion

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19
Q

How are protein hormones made?

A

Made from the translation of messenger RNA
mRNA to pre-hormone to pro-hormone to hormone
Packaged into secretory vesicles and released

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20
Q

What are the functions of secretory vesicles?

A

Protect hormones from proteolytic degradation
provide a reservoir in sites of synthesis
Provides a transport mechanism to the site of release
Provides a release mechanism through which the vesicle membrane is incorporated into the plasma membrane
Provide a release mechanism (exocytosis)
Provides for quantal release of consistent hormone amounts

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21
Q

What are the two types of hormones in the plasma?

A

Bound and free

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22
Q

What are free hormones?

A

Biologically active

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23
Q

What are bound hormones?

A

Inactive when bound to a binding protein

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24
Q

What are the roles of protein binding of plasma hormones?

A

Increases solubility and concentration, providing a reservoir for target sites
Increases size, protecting hormones from clearance and degradation by the liver and kidney and degradation by plasma enzymes
Inactivates free hormones, providing a buffer against large and sudden changes in hormone concentrations
Dynamically regulated with rate of secretion, rate of degradation, and binding to receptors on target cells

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25
Q

How is hormone secretion regulated?

A

Dynamic regulation occurs in response to feedback from target sites
Negative feedback is common, and inhibits secretion when circulating levels are high and increases secretion when circulating levels are low
Positive feedback is rare, but allows discrete events to be rapidly attained

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26
Q

What is the negative feedback pathway?

A

Endocrine gland releases the hormone, hormone travels in the blood to act at its target site, causes release of a product into the bloodstream, product will cause suppression of the gland, decrease in secretion of the hormone from the gland

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27
Q

What is the positive feedback pathway?

A

Endocrine gland releases hormones, acts on the target cell or tissue, produces a product, product will then feedback on the endocrine gland from which the first hormone was released to stimulate it

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28
Q

What is hormone action?

A

Feedback results from hormone action at target sites
The first requisite for hormonal action is the binding of the hormone to a specific receptor
Only those cells that have receptors respond to particular hormones

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29
Q

What is signal amplification?

A

Signal transduction mechanisms allow for amplification of the response following binding of a hormone to its receptor

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30
Q

What are the two types of hormone receptors?

A

Nuclear

Cytoplasmic

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31
Q

What are nuclear receptors?

A

Steroid and thyroid hormones
Located in the nucleus of the cell
Genomically mediated through protein synthesis

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32
Q

What are cytoplasmic receptors?

A

Involved in intracellular transport for cytosol-insoluble steroids
Reservoir storage and organelle actions for thyroid hormones

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33
Q

What is downregulation?

A

(less receptors)
At high hormone concentrations to prevent over-activity
Decreased receptor synthesis/increased degradation
Internalized membrane receptors
Dislocation of receptor and signal transduction system

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34
Q

What is desensitization?

A

At high hormone concentrations to prevent over-activity

Conformational change in lock structure

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35
Q

What is up-regulation?

A

At low hormone concentration to increase activity

Increased receptor synthesis/decreased degradation

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36
Q

What is sensitization?

A

At low hormone concentrations to increase activity

Conformational change in lock structure

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37
Q

What is down-regulation by coated pits?

A

Allows protein hormones to enter the cell

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38
Q

What are the primary ways that endocrine dysfunction occurs?

A

Primary defect in synthesis = problems endocrine gland
Defect in regulation = problem in hormone action
Defect in hormone action = problem with target tissue

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39
Q

What is the hypophysis?

A

The pituitary gland

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40
Q

Where is the pituitary gland?

A

Ventral part of brain

Below the hypothalamus

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41
Q

What are the parts of the pituitary gland?

A

The anterior and posterior pituitary

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42
Q

What is the posterior pituitary?

A

Down-growth from the brain

Neural tissue

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43
Q

What is the anterior pituitary?

A

Derived from non-neural tissue (Rathke’s pouch)

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44
Q

What is the intermediate lobe?

A

Found between the anterior and posterior pituitary

Lost before birth

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45
Q

What are the neural connections between the posterior pituitary and the hypothalamus?

A

Hormones are produced in the hypothalamus nuclei (paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei)
The hormones are synthesized in the cell bodies of the nuclei and their long axons pass down the infundibulum and end in the posterior pituitary gland where they are stored

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46
Q

What hormones does the posterior pituitary secrete?

A

ADH/vasopressin

Oxytocin

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47
Q

What nuclei makes ADH?

A

Supraoptic nuclei

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48
Q

What nuclei make oxytocin?

A

Paraventricular nuclei

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49
Q

How are protein hormones synthesized in the nerves?

A

Hormone is produced in the cell body of the neuron, packaged into the golgi, transported along the axont to nerve terminals, stored in nerve terminals until appropriate stimulus comes, hormone moves into blood

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50
Q

What is the vasoconstriction action of ADH/Vasopressin?

A

Contraction of blood vessel smooth muscle
Increases blood pressure
Only occurs at high concentrations

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51
Q

What is the anti-diuretic action of ADH/Vasopressin?

A

Increases permeability of the renal collecting duct bu increasing the number of water channels
Vasoconstriction reduces glomerular filtration rate
Contraction reduces the size of the glomerulosa cells, reducing the surface area for filtration

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52
Q

What is the mechanism of action of ADH?

A

Travels to the kidneys
ADH binds to its receptor on the collecting cells
Binding of ADH to its receptor induces synthesis of a second messenger
Cyclic AMP causes the up-regulation of the aquaporin 2 protein via gene transcription

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53
Q

What are factors affecting the secretion of ADH/vasopressin?

A

Plasma volume

Plasma osmolarity

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54
Q

What cells are osmoreceptors?

A

The cells in the hypothalamus
Respond to changes in osmolarity
Ex: Supraoptic nucleus (SON) and paraventricular (PVN)

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55
Q

What receptors sense changes in blood pressure caused by alterations in blood volume?

A

Baroreceptors

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56
Q

What is the main stimuli for ADH release?

A

Decrease in blood volume or an increase in blood osmolarity

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57
Q

What is the effect of dehydration on ADH secretion?

A

Decreased extracellular fluid volume, decreased blood pressure, decreased stretch of blood vessel walls, baroreceptors decrease rate of firing, increased release of ADH, increased water reabsorption or retention from urine, water excretion decreases, water movement back into the plasma increases blood volume levels

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58
Q

What is the effect of water intake on ADH secretion?

A

Increase the extracellular fluid volume, increase in blood volume, increases blood pressure, stimulates stretch receptors or baroreceptors, baroreceptors cause a decrease in ADH release, permeability of the collecting ducts to water decreases, decreased water reabsorption, increased water excretion

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59
Q

What is the relationship between plasma ADH and plasma osmolarity?

A

Osmolarity of the blood increases with dehydration and decreases with over-hydration
Increase in plasma osmolarity = increase in plasma ADH

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60
Q

What is the relationship between plasma ADH and mean arteriole pressure?

A

Decline in MAP results in ADH release

ADH also causes vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure

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61
Q

What else is ADH secretion increased by?

A

Stress/emotion
Heat
Nicotine
Caffeine

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62
Q

What else is ADH decreased by?

A

Cold

Alcohol

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63
Q

Summary of ADH action

A

Synthesis: SON

Secretion: Posterior pituitary

Actions: Increased water retention and vasoconstriction

Stimuli: Increased osmolarity and decreased blood volume

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64
Q

What is a disease caused by low ADH?

A

Diabetes insipidus

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65
Q

What is a disease caused by excess ADH?

A

Syndrome of inappropriate ADH

Problem with ADH production, feedback failure

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66
Q

What is hypothalamic diabetes insipidus?

A

Problem with ADH production

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67
Q

What is nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?

A

Problem with ADH action

68
Q

What is polyuria?

A

Production of large amounts of dilute urine

69
Q

What is polydipsia?

A

Excessive thirst and fluid intake

70
Q

Why is diabetes insipidus bad?

A

Cannot decrease urine flow even when water deprived

71
Q

What is the treatment for diabetes insipidus?

A

ADH or other anti-diuretics

72
Q

What is SIADH?

A

Increased ADH levels and decreased aldosterone levels result in hyponatremia or low blood sodium levels

73
Q

What are the actions of oxytocin?

A

Uterine myometrium
-parturition
-clamping ruptured blood vessels
-restoration of uterine size
-sperm movement
-cervix movement
Mammary myometrium
-milk let-down

74
Q

What is the effect of oxytocin on parturition?

A

Positive feedback loop
Weak uterine contractions push pressure of the fetus against the cervix which will strengthen uterine contractions and cause oxytocin secretion from the posterior pituitary

75
Q

What is the effect of oxytocin on milk let-down?

A

Positive feedback loop
Suckling further increases the release of oxytocin
Also a conditioned response as visual and auditory stimuli from the infant can stimulate milk let-down

76
Q

What are the other functions of oxytocin?

A

Released during sexual intercourse and stimulates orgasm

Social bonding

77
Q

How is oxytocin secretion regulated?

A

Tactile stimuli from the nipples or the genital tract increase secretion
Stress decreases secretion

78
Q

Summary of Oxytocin

A

Synthesis: PVN

Secretion: Posterior pituitary

Actions: increased lactation and uterine motility

Stimuli: genital/uterine/breast stimulation

79
Q

What is the consequence of a deficiency of oxytocin?

A

Impaired delivery
Impaired lactation
No problems associated with high levels (excess) of oxytocin

80
Q

What is the anterior pituitary?

A

Produces hormones essential for growth and reproduction

Controlled by the hypothalamus through the blood supply

81
Q

How is the anterior pituitary supplied with blood?

A

Median eminence-capillary bed receives axons from nuclei in the hypothalamus and gives rise to the hypothalamo-hyposphyseal portal vessels which run into the anterior pituitary
Secretions from the hypothalamus are released into the capillary beds

82
Q

What are the nuclei of the hypothalamus that control the anterior pituitary?

A

Parvocellular neurons

Magnocellular neurons

83
Q

What are the parvocellular neurons?

A

Neurons with small cell bodies and short axons that end in the median eminence
Produce neural secretions that are released into the blood vessels

84
Q

What are magnocellular neurons?

A

Neuroendocrine cells located in the hypothalamus

Synthesize the hormones ADH/vasopressin (PVN and SON)

85
Q

What are anterior pituitary gland hormones?

A

Secretion regulated by hormones produced by the hypothalamus

Gonadotropins
Growth Hormone
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Prolactin
Adrenocorticotropin

86
Q

What are hypothalamic-releasing hormones?

A

Neural secretions from the hypothalamus

Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Growth hormone releasing hormone
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Prolactin-releasing factors
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone
Somatotropin release inhibitory factor
Prolactin inhibitory factors

87
Q

How does the anterior pituitary control secretions with negative feedback?

A

Hormones released from target endocrine gland will provide negative feedback at the level of the anterior pituitary and at the level of the hypothalamus
Autoregulatory loop
Retrograde flow along the blood vessels

88
Q

What are the effects of growth hormone on muscle?

A

Increased protein synthesis and decreased glucose uptake

Increased muscle mass

89
Q

What is the effects of growth hormone on the liver?

A

Increased protein synthesis, gluconeogenesis, and somatomedin production

90
Q

What are the effects of growth hormone on adipose?

A

Decreased glucose uptake and increase lipolysis

Decreased adiposity

91
Q

What does somatomedin IGF-1 do?

A

Affects the chondrocytes of bone
Increases collagen synthesis, protein synthesis and cell proliferation
Increased linear growth

92
Q

What does somatomedin IGF-II do?

A

Affects tissues and organs
Increased protein synthesis, RNA synthesis, DNA synthesis, and cell size and number
Increased tissue growth, increased organ size

93
Q

What are 2 factors regulating growth hormone secretion?

A

Growth hormone inhibiting hormone and growth hormone releasing hormone

94
Q

What is growth hormone release increased by?

A

Deep sleep, exercise, stress or reduced blood glucose levels, increased blood amino acids, and decreased blood fatty acids

95
Q

What are the actions of GH on target sites that provide negative feedback?

A

Somatomedins from the liver inhibit GH release
GH inhibits its own release
GH release is inhibited by the products of lipolysis, glucose

96
Q

What is the 24 hour plasma growth hormone profile of GH?

A

Diurnal pattern of GH release

Number and amplitude of GH is increased in the dark and increased during sleep

97
Q

How does GH release change in response to blood nutrient levels?

A

Fasting increased GH release episodes
Frequent meals high in glucose or fatty acids suppress hormone release
Frequent meals high in amino acids increase growth hormone release

98
Q

Summary of Growth Hormone

A

Synthesis: Somatotrophs

Secretion: Episodic, more during stress/sleep, less during aging, GHRH/SRIF balance

Action: Skeletal/soft tissue growth, hyperglycemia/hyperlipidemia, IGF-1 induction

99
Q

What can a deficiency of growth hormone cause?

A

Dwarfism in juveniles

Somatopause in adults

100
Q

What is an isolated GH deficiency?

A

Type 1 dwarfism

Defect in GH production

101
Q

What is Laron-type dwarfism?

A

Defect in GH action

GH is not deficient, IGF-1 levels are deficient

102
Q

What is the difference between a GH dwarf and a thyroid dwarf?

A

A GH hormone dwarf has normal body proportions but just shorter in height
Thyroid dwarfs have body proportions younger than their age

103
Q

What is somatopause?

A

GH deficiency in adults
Increased fat and decreased lean mass
Metabolic disturbances
Impaired immune function (thyroid atrophy)

104
Q

What is acromegaly?

A

Excess growth hormone production in an adult

105
Q

What are the features of agromegaly?

A

Prognathism (bulging of jaw)
Hirsutism (unwanted male hair growth in females)
Large acral regions (hands and feet)
Enlarged male breast tissue (gynecomastia)

106
Q

What are the actions of prolactin?

A

Gonadal modulation
-pro-gonadal when gonadal activity is low
-anti-gonadal when gonadal activity is high
Mammary gland development
Lactation
-milk production

107
Q

What controls prolactin secretion?

A

Prolactin-releasing factors
Gonadal steroids
Mammary stimulation

108
Q

What are some prolactin-releasing factors?

A

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Oxytocin

109
Q

What are gonadal steroids causing prolactin secretion??

A

Estrogen/testosterone increase

Progesterone decrease

110
Q

What is mammary stimulation?

A
111
Q

What is hyperprolactinemia?

A
112
Q

What are the symptoms of hyperprolactinemia?

A
113
Q

What is the treatment for hyperprolactinemia?

A
114
Q

What is hypoprolactinemia?

A
115
Q

What are the symptoms of hypoprolactinemia?

A
116
Q

What is pituitary diabetes?

A
117
Q

What is hypopituitarism?

A
118
Q

What is panhypopituitarism?

A
119
Q

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis?

A
120
Q

What is thyroid-stimulating hormone?

A
121
Q

What is a trophic hormone?

A
122
Q

What is a glycoprotein hormone?

A
123
Q

What is the thyroid gland?

A
124
Q

What is thyroglobulin?

A
125
Q

What are the two thyroid hormones?

A
126
Q

What is T4?

A
127
Q

What is the biologically active thyroid hormone?

A
128
Q

How is thyroid hormone synthesized?

A
129
Q

What makes T3?

A
130
Q

What makes T4?

A
131
Q

Summary of thyroid hormone synthesis

A
132
Q

What are thyroid hormone-binding proteins?

A
133
Q

What does thyroid hormone do?

A
134
Q

What is the effect of thyroid hormone on metabolic rate and heat production? (main effects)

A
135
Q

What is the effect of thyroid hormone on neural activity?

A
136
Q

What is the effect of thyroid hormone on intermediary metabolism?

A
137
Q

What is the effect of thyroid hormone on growth and development?

A
138
Q

What are the three types of thyroid hormone receptors?

A
139
Q

What are membrane-bound thyroid hormone receptors?

A
140
Q

What are cytoplasmic thyroid hormone receptors?

A
141
Q

What are nuclear thyroid hormone receptors?

A
142
Q

What are the unique features of the thyroid hormone?

A
143
Q

What happens when there is excess thyroid hormone?

A
144
Q

What is primary thyroid dysfunction?

A
145
Q

What is secondary thyroid dysfunction?

A
146
Q

What is tertiary thyroid dysfunction?

A
147
Q

What is Grave’s disease?

A
148
Q

What are the characteristics of Grave’s disease?

A
149
Q

What happens when there is a thyroid hormone deficiency?

A
150
Q

What are some causes of hypothyroidism?

A
151
Q

What is an endemic goitre?

A
152
Q

What is Hashimoto’s thyrodiditis?

A
153
Q

What is cretinism?

A
154
Q

What is myxedema?

A
155
Q

What are hypothyroid characteristics?

A

Dull blank expression, slow mentation ???, Decreased BMR, Bradycardia (slower normal heart rate)

156
Q

What are the adrenal glands?

A
157
Q

What are steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex?

A
158
Q

Which of the adrenal cortex hormones provide feedback?

A
159
Q

What is adrenocorticotropin?

A
160
Q

How is ACTH released?

A
161
Q

What does POMC do?

A
162
Q

What are the zones of the adrenal cortex?

A
163
Q

What is the glomerular zone?

A

??? No metabolism (salt/water retention)

164
Q

What is the fascicular zone?

A
165
Q

What is the reticular zone?

A

Physiology 210 (9 decks)

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