Endocrine System (Pt. 3) Flashcards
(215 cards)
1
Q
What are the main functions of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
A
- Regulates calcium, magnesium, and phosphate
- Increases osteoclast activity (releases calcium from bones)
- Reduces calcium/magnesium loss in urine
- Increases phosphate excretion
- Promotes active vitamin D (calcitriol) formation
2
Q
How does PTH affect bones?
A
PTH increases osteoclast activity, which breaks down bone and releases calcium and phosphate into the blood.
3
Q
How does PTH affect the kidneys?
A
PTH reduces calcium and magnesium loss in urine, increases phosphate excretion, and stimulates the production of calcitriol (active vitamin D).
4
Q
How does PTH promote vitamin D activation?
A
PTH stimulates the kidneys to produce calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, which enhances calcium, phosphate, and magnesium absorption from the digestive system.
5
Q
What triggers the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
A
Low blood calcium (Ca²⁺) levels trigger the release of PTH to restore calcium balance.
6
Q
How does PTH increase blood calcium levels?
A
PTH increases osteoclast activity, which breaks down bone and releases calcium into the bloodstream.
7
Q
How does PTH help increase calcium absorption?
A
PTH stimulates the kidneys to produce calcitriol, which enhances calcium absorption from the digestive system into the blood.
8
Q
How does PTH affect urinary calcium excretion?
A
PTH reduces calcium and magnesium loss in urine, conserving these minerals in the bloodstream.
9
Q
explain the negative feedback system of PTH:
A
Stimulus: Decreased blood calcium levels.
Control Center: The parathyroid glands detect low calcium levels.
Response:
- PTH Release: The parathyroid glands release PTH.
- Effectors: PTH stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone, releasing calcium into the blood, and affects kidneys to reabsorb more calcium.
Result: Increased calcium levels in the blood.
Return to homeostasis
10
Q
Does the posterior pituitary gland produce hormones?
A
No, it stores and releases hormones made by the hypothalamus.
11
Q
What two hormones are stored and released by the posterior pituitary?
A
Oxytocin (OT) and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
12
Q
How is oxytocin (OT) released into the bloodstream?
A
It is stored in the posterior pituitary and released via a capillary network.
13
Q
How is ADH released into the bloodstream?
A
It is stored in the posterior pituitary and released through the same capillary network as oxytocin.
14
Q
How do oxytocin and ADH reach the bloodstream from the posterior pituitary?
A
They pass through the hypophyseal veins to reach their target tissues.
15
Q
What triggers the variation in ADH secretion?
A
Blood osmolarity and osmotic pressure.
16
Q
How does ADH affect urine and sweat output?
A
ADH decreases urine and sweat output by absorbing water when the blood is thick (dehydrated) or when blood pressure is low.
17
Q
How does ADH affect urine and sweat output when blood is thick (dehydrated) or blood pressure is low?
A
ADH decreases urine and sweat output by absorbing water.
18
Q
What happens to ADH secretion when blood volume increases?
A
ADH secretion decreases.
19
Q
What happens to ADH secretion when blood volume decreases?
A
ADH secretion increases.
20
Q
What is the function of ADH in high blood osmolarity or low blood pressure?
A
It helps the kidneys retain water, reducing urine and sweat output.
21
Q
How does increased blood volume affect ADH secretion?
A
It decreases ADH secretion, allowing more water to be excreted.
22
Q
What happens to ADH secretion when blood volume is low?
A
ADH secretion increases to conserve water and maintain blood pressure.
23
Q
Q: What role does ADH play in regulating hydration and blood pressure?
A
A: It balances the body’s water retention and blood pressure levels.
24
Q
Q: How does sweating affect blood plasma?
A
A: Sweating causes a loss of blood plasma, increasing blood osmolality.
25
Q: How is increased blood osmolality detected?
A: It is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
26
Q: What does the hypothalamus do in response to increased osmolality?
A: It signals the posterior pituitary gland to release ADH into the bloodstream.
27
Q: What effect does ADH have on the kidneys?
A: ADH increases the water permeability of renal tubules and collecting ducts, resulting in increased water reabsorption.
28
Q: What happens to blood osmolality as water is reabsorbed by the kidneys?
A: Blood osmolality decreases as plasma volume increases.
29
Q: What concludes the feedback loop in blood osmolality regulation?
A: Blood osmolality returns to normal levels as plasma volume is restored.
30
ADH Effects:
Kidneys: Retain more water to reduce urine output.
Sweat Glands: Reduces water loss through sweating.
Blood Vessels: Causes blood vessels to constrict, raising blood pressure
31
What is the relationship between exercise intensity (VO2 max) and ADH levels?
As exercise intensity (VO2 max) increases, plasma ADH levels increase significantly, especially at higher intensities.
32
Why does the body increase ADH release during intense exercise?
A: To help retain more water in the body during periods of increased sweating and water loss.
33
Q: What does higher ADH levels during intense exercise indicate about water conservation?
A: Higher ADH levels indicate the body is working harder to conserve water as exercise intensity increases.
34
Q: What are the target tissues for Oxytocin (OT)?
A: Uterus and mammary glands.
35
Q: How is Oxytocin secretion controlled?
A: Secreted in response to uterine distension and nipple stimulation.
36
Q: What is a principal action of Oxytocin?
A: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection from mammary glands.
37
Q: What are the target tissues for Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?
A: Kidneys, sudoriferous glands, and arterioles.
38
Q: How is ADH secretion controlled?
A: Secreted in response to high blood osmotic pressure, dehydration, or stress; inhibited by low osmotic pressure, high blood volume, and alcohol.
39
Q: What is a principal action of ADH?
A: Conserves body water by decreasing urine volume, reduces perspiration, and raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles.
40
Q: What two factors primarily determine hormonal effect?
A: Hormone concentration and number of receptors on the target cell.
41
Q: How do endocrine glands deliver hormones?
A: They release hormones directly into the bloodstream to reach specific cells/tissues.
42
Q: What is the primary feedback mechanism for hormonal responses?
A: Negative feedback, which aims to restore homeostasis.
43
Q: How do lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones differ?
A: They have different mechanisms of action in the body.
44
Q: What is the relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland?
A: They are interconnected in regards to hormone release.
45
Q: How does alcohol affect ADH?
A: Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion, leading to increased urine production.
46
Q: Where are the adrenal glands located?
A: Above each kidney (also called suprarenal glands)
47
Q: What are the two main parts of adrenal glands?
A: Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
48
Q: What does the adrenal cortex produce?
A: Essential steroid hormones
49
Q: What does the adrenal medulla produce?
A: Catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrine, and some dopamine)
50
Q: What happens if adrenal cortex hormones are lost?
A: Leads to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances, requiring hormone replacement therapy
51
Q: What is a key characteristic of adrenal glands?
A: They are highly vascularized, similar to the thyroid gland
52
What are the two main regions of the adrenal glands?
A: The outer cortex and the inner medulla.
53
Q: Which region of the adrenal glands produces steroid hormones?
A: The outer cortex.
54
Q: What does the inner medulla of the adrenal glands produce?
A: Catecholamines such as norepinephrine and epinephrine.
55
What are the three zones of the suprarenal cortex?
A: Zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis
56
Q: What hormones does the suprarenal medulla produce?
A: Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and small amounts of dopamine
57
Q: What triggers hormone release from the suprarenal medulla?
A: Stimulation by sympathetic preganglionic neurons
58
what does the adrenal cortex produce?
- Mineralcorticoids: regulate blood volume and blood pressure
- Glicocorticoids: cortisol
- Weak androgens
59
Q: What are mineralocorticoids used for?
A: To regulate blood volume and blood pressure
60
Q: What is the primary glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal glands?
Cortisol
61
Q: What is the function of androgens produced by the adrenal glands?
A: They contribute to sex-specific differences, though they are relatively weak
62
Q: Which zone produces mineralocorticoids?
A: Zona glomerulosa
63
Q: Which zone produces glucocorticoids?
A: Zona fasciculata
64
Q: Which zone produces androgens?
A: Zona reticularis
65
Q: What is the primary role of the RAA pathway?
A: Controls the secretion of aldosterone and regulates sodium homeostasis, blood volume, and pressure.
66
Q: What is the major mineralocorticoid hormone produced?
Aldosterone
67
Q: How does aldosterone affect the kidneys?
A: Increases sodium (Na+) reabsorption, leading to water retention.
68
Q: What is the outcome of aldosterone's action?
A: Increased blood volume and blood pressure.
69
Q: What triggers the activation of the RAA system?
A: Dehydration, low blood sodium levels, or excessive bleeding (hemorrhage).
70
Q: How do low blood volume and pressure influence the RAA system?
A: They activate the RAA system to restore blood volume and pressure.
71
Q: What initiates the RAA pathway?
A: A reduction in blood volume and blood pressure
72
Q: What is the kidney's response to low blood pressure?
A: The kidneys release the enzyme Renin
73
Q: What happens to Renin levels in the blood during this process?
A: Renin levels rise in the blood
74
Q: What is angiotensinogen and what converts it?
A: It's a blood protein produced by the liver; Renin converts it to angiotensin I
75
Q: What is the status of angiotensin I in the body?
A: It's an inactive hormone
76
Q: Where is angiotensinogen produced?
A: In the liver
77
Q: What happens to blood levels of angiotensin I?
A: They rise and circulate in the blood.
78
Q: What enzyme in the lungs converts angiotensin I?
A: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE)
79
Q: What does ACE convert angiotensin I into?
A: Angiotensin II (an active hormone)
80
Q: Where does angiotensin II travel after being formed?
A: It travels to the adrenal cortex.
81
Q: What effect does angiotensin II have on the adrenal cortex?
A: It stimulates the release of aldosterone.
82
Q: What happens to aldosterone levels after stimulation?
A: Aldosterone levels rise in the blood and travel to the kidneys.
83
Q: How does aldosterone affect the kidneys?
A: It stimulates kidneys to reabsorb sodium, which leads to increased water reabsorption through osmosis.
84
Q: What is the end result of the RAA pathway?
A: Blood volume increases and blood pressure stabilizes.
85
Q: What additional effect does angiotensin II have on blood vessels?
A: It causes vasoconstriction in arteries and veins, helping to increase blood pressure.
86
Q: How does sodium reabsorption lead to water retention?
A: Through osmosis - water follows sodium back into the blood.
87
Q: What are the two ways the RAA pathway increases blood pressure?
A: 1) Through sodium/water retention increasing blood volume, and 2) Through vasoconstriction caused by angiotensin II.
88
purpose of the RAA pathway?
controls aldosterone secretion
89
Q: What triggers the RAA pathway?
A: Dehydration, low sodium, or bleeding that reduces blood volume.
90
Q: What effect does lower blood volume have on blood pressure?
A: It decreases blood pressure.
91
Q: How do kidneys respond to low blood pressure?
A: Kidney cells release renin.
92
Q: What is the role of renin in the RAA pathway?
A: It converts angiotensinogen (from the liver) into angiotensin I.
93
Q: What converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II?
A: Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs.
94
Q: What are the effects of angiotensin II?
A: It stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone and causes blood vessel constriction to raise blood pressure.
95
Q: How does aldosterone function in the kidneys?
It increases sodium (Na+) reabsorption, promoting water retention, and promotes potassium (K+) and hydrogen ion (H+) excretion.
96
Q: What is the overall result of aldosterone action?
A: Increased water retention boosts blood volume and restores blood pressure.
97
Q: What additional stimulus can trigger aldosterone release?
A: High potassium levels, while low levels reduce aldosterone release.
98
the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) pathway in response to exercise:
Muscular Activity: Promotes sweating and increases blood pressure.
Sweating: Reduces plasma volume, decreasing blood flow to the kidneys.
Reduced Renal Blood Flow: Triggers renin release from the kidneys, converting angiotensin I to II.
Angiotensin II: Stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex.
Aldosterone Effects: Increases sodium (Na+) and water reabsorption in the kidneys.
Outcome: Plasma volume increases; urine production decreases after consistent exercise and sodium intake.
99
Q: What is the primary glucocorticoid hormone?
Cortisol
100
Q: What is one effect of cortisol on protein and glycogen?
A: It leads to increased protein and glycogen breakdown, which can result in muscle loss and fatigue.
101
Q: How does cortisol affect glucose formation?
A: It increases glucose formation from non-carbohydrate sources through gluconeogenesis.
102
Q: What process does cortisol enhance related to fat?
A: Lipolysis, which is the oxidation of fat.
103
Q: How does cortisol help the body in stressful situations?
A: It increases resistance to stress, acting as a defense mechanism against stressors like exercise and fasting.
104
Q: What effect does cortisol have on inflammation?
A: It decreases inflammation, and is used in treatments for conditions like Crohn's disease and arthritis.
105
Q: What impact does cortisol have on immune responses?
A: It decreases immune responses.
106
Q: What is the major androgen secreted by the adrenal glands?
A: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
107
Q: How does DHEA affect males after puberty?
A: It has virtually no effect due to high testosterone production from the testes
108
Q: What are the two main roles of DHEA in females?
A: 1) Promotes libido (sex drive) and 2) Converts to estrogens
109
Q: What is the significance of DHEA in menopausal women?
A: It becomes the main source of estrogens as all female estrogens come from adrenal androgens
110
Q: What happens to DHEA in female bodies?
A: It's converted into estrogens in various tissues
111
Q: How does DHEA's role change during menopause?
A: It becomes the primary source for estrogen production when ovarian production decreases or stops
112
Q: What maintains hormonal balance in menopausal women?
A: The conversion of adrenal androgens (DHEA) into estrogens
113
what is the adrenal medulla stimulated by?
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
114
Q: What is the inner region of the suprarenal gland called?
A: Suprarenal medulla
115
Q: What do chromaffin cells in the medulla produce?
A: Hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine.
116
Q: How are chromaffin cells stimulated for hormone release?
A: They are innervated by sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
117
Q: What is the major hormone produced by the suprarenal medulla?
A: Epinephrine (Accounts for about 80% of hormone production)
118
Q: What percentage of hormones produced by the suprarenal medulla is norepinephrine?
A: Approximately 20%
119
Q: What roles do epinephrine and norepinephrine play in the body?
A: They amplify sympathetic responses, enhancing reactions to stress and other stimuli.
120
Q: What do chromaffin cells in the suprarenal medulla secrete?
A: Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
121
Q: What response are epinephrine and norepinephrine primarily involved in?
A: The fight-or-flight response.
122
Q: How do epinephrine and norepinephrine affect the body?
A: They increase heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow, respiration, and the breakdown of glycogen, fat, and proteins.
123
Q: What is the purpose of these hormonal changes during stress?
A: To deliver nutrients to muscles for quick energy.
124
Q: What triggers the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine?
A: Stressful situations that stimulate the hypothalamus to activate chromaffin cells.
125
Q: Where is the pancreas located in the body?
A: It is located in the curve of the duodenum, behind the peritoneum (retroperitoneally).
126
Q: What is the role of the pancreas in digestion?
A: It releases enzymes directly into the duodenum to aid in food breakdown.
127
Q: What is the endocrine function of the pancreas?
A: It secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.
128
Q: What is the function of insulin?
A: It regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating cellular uptake of glucose.
128
Q: How does glucagon affect blood glucose levels?
A: It raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose.
129
Q: What role does somatostatin play in the pancreas?
A: It inhibits the release of other hormones to regulate metabolic processes.
130
Q: What is the exocrine function of the pancreas?
A: It produces digestive enzymes that aid in breaking down food.
131
Q: Name a few digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas.
A: Amylase (breaks down carbohydrates), lipase (aids in fat digestion), and proteases (like trypsin, break down proteins).
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Clusters of endocrine cells (called ‘Islets of Langerhans’) produce two important hormones:
Glucagon - secreted from alpha cells
Insulin - secreted from beta cells
133
glucagon function:
raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream.
134
insulin function:
Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose into cells.
135
Q: Where is insulin produced?
A: Insulin is produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets.
136
Q: How does insulin lower blood glucose levels?
A: By accelerating the transport of glucose into cells, converting glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis), and decreasing glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
137
Q: What additional effects does insulin have on metabolism?
A: It increases lipogenesis and stimulates protein synthesis.
138
Q: What type of feedback mechanism controls blood glucose?
A: Negative feedback loop, where the response counteracts the initial stimulus.
139
Q: What triggers glucagon secretion?
A: Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia)
140
Q: What are the main effects of glucagon?
A: Converts glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis), promotes gluconeogenesis, and increases glucose release into bloodstream
141
Q: What triggers insulin secretion?
A: High blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
142
What are the main effects of insulin?
Facilitates glucose diffusion into cells, promotes glycogenesis, increases amino acid uptake, enhances lipogenesis, and slows glucose-increasing processes
143
Q: How is glucagon secretion inhibited?
A: By high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
144
Q: How is insulin secretion inhibited?
A: By low blood glucose levels, which simultaneously stimulates glucagon release
145
Clusters of endocrine cells (called ‘Islets of Langerhans’) produce two important hormones:
Insulin (Beta cells)
Glucagon (Alpha cells)
146
what is the stimulus in the negative feedback loop of insulin secretion and glucagon?
Stimulus:
The initial trigger is a drop in blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia), which disrupts the body's homeostasis.
147
controlled condition - insulin secretion and glucagon negative feedback system:
the blood glucose level (hypoglycemia), which is being monitored.
148
what is the receptor in the negative feedback look of insulin secretion and glucagon?
the pancreas: detects the low blood glucose levels
149
what is the control center in terms of the negative feedback loop associated with insulin secretion and glucagon?
Alpha cells of the pancreas: These cells act as the control center. When low glucose is detected, they stimulate the release of glucagon.
150
what is the output in the negative feedback look associated with insulin secretion and glucagon?
Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to low blood glucose levels.
151
what are the effectors of the negative feedback loop associated with insulin secretion and glucagon?
Hepatocytes (Liver Cells): These are the target cells affected by glucagon.
Glucagon stimulates these liver cells to break down glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis).
It also promotes the formation of glucose from lactic acid and amino acids (gluconeogenesis).
152
what is the response in the negative feedback loop of insulin secretion and glucagon?
The actions of glucagon lead to an increase in blood glucose levels, thereby aiming to restore normal levels.
153
explain the return to homeostasis in the negative feedback loop associated with insulin secretion and glucagon:
Once blood glucose levels return to normal, this feedback loop helps maintain equilibrium by stopping further glucagon release.
154
What triggers glucagon secretion?
Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia)
155
Which cells secrete glucagon?
Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets
156
What are the three main effects of glucagon?
1) Converts glycogen to glucose
2) Promotes gluconeogenesis
3) Increases glucose release into bloodstream
157
What triggers insulin secretion?
High blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
158
Which cells secrete insulin?
Beta cells in the pancreatic islets
159
What are the five main effects of insulin?
"Happy Elephants Love Producing Giants"
Helps glucose enter cells
Enhances fatty acids
Lowers glucose processes
Protein uptake increases
Glucose becomes glycogen
160
What inhibits glucagon secretion?
High blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
161
What inhibits insulin secretion?
Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia)
162
What type of feedback system controls blood glucose regulation?
Negative feedback
163
How are blood levels of glucagon and insulin controlled?
Blood glucose acts as the main trigger:
HIGH glucose → Insulin released, Glucagon inhibited
LOW glucose → Glucagon released, Insulin inhibited
164
What are the effects of exercise versus eating a carbohydrate- and protein-rich meal on the secretion of insulin and glucagon?
Exercise:
Glucose used by muscles → Blood glucose ↓
Results in: Glucagon ↑, Insulin ↓
This helps maintain blood glucose for energy
Carb/Protein-rich Meal:
Glucose enters bloodstream → Blood glucose ↑
Results in: Insulin ↑, Glucagon ↓
This helps store excess nutrients and lower blood glucose
165
What do gonads produce?
Gametes (oocytes from ovaries and sperm from testes)
166
What hormones do ovaries produce?
Estradiol, estrone, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin
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What hormone do testes produce?
Testosterone
168
What are the functions of testosterone?
Stimulates testes descent before birth, regulates sperm production, and develops and maintains male secondary sex characteristics (e.g., beard growth, deep voice).
169
What is the role of inhibin in males?
Inhibits secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
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What are the functions of estrogens and progesterone?
Regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands for lactation, promote breast enlargement and hip widening during puberty, and maintain female secondary sex characteristics.
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What does relaxin do during pregnancy?
Increases pubic symphysis flexibility and helps dilate the uterine cervix during labor.
172
where do estrogen and progesterone work from?
work with hormones from anterior pituitary
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Where is Testosterone produced?
In the Testis
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What are the three main actions of Testosterone?
1. Stimulates the descent of testes before birth
2. Regulates sperm production
3. Promotes development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics (beard growth, deep voice)
175
Where is Inhibin produced?
In the Testis
176
What is the main action of Inhibin?
Inhibits secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary
177
What testicular hormone is responsible for male secondary sex characteristics?
Testosterone
178
What testicular hormone provides negative feedback to the anterior pituitary?
Inhibin
179
How much lower is testosterone in females compared to males?
15-20 times lower
180
What are the three main functions of testosterone in females?
1. Muscle and bone health
2. Libido and mood regulation
3. Reproductive function
181
How does testosterone affect female muscle and bone health?
It contributes to muscle strength, maintains muscle mass, and supports bone density
182
What is testosterone's role in female reproduction?
It's involved in ovarian function and serves as a precursor for estrogen synthesis
183
How do females respond to exercise in terms of testosterone production?
They experience modest increases in testosterone during resistance training, but the changes are small compared to males
184
Why don't exercise-related testosterone increases significantly impact females?
Due to their naturally lower baseline testosterone levels, even when increases occur, the overall impact is minimal
185
What gland produces serotonin by day, converts it to melatonin (hormone) at night
Pineal Gland
186
What are the two main hormones produced by the pineal gland and when?
- Serotonin (produced during daylight)
- Melatonin (produced during darkness)
187
What is the main function of melatonin?
Regulates sleep and the sleep-wake cycle, with levels increasing tenfold during sleep
188
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate the pineal gland?
Uses visual input from eyes to regulate serotonin/melatonin production based on light exposure
189
What is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?
A type of depression occurring during winter months due to shorter daylight, linked to overproduction of melatonin
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How is SAD treated?
With full-spectrum bright-light therapy that mimics sunlight
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What is jet lag and how can it be treated?
- Definition: Fatigue from rapidly crossing multiple time zones
- Treatment: Exposure to bright light for 3-6 hours to reset circadian rhythm
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Where is the thymus located?
Above the heart, behind the sternum, and between the lungs
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What is the primary role of the thymus in the immune system?
To regulate and mature T-lymphocytes (T cells), which help destroy microbes and foreign substances
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What types of hormones does the thymus secrete?
Thymosin, thymic humoral factor (THF), thymic factor (TF), and thymopoietin
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How do thymus hormones affect T cells?
They promote the maturation of T cells and help regulate the immune response
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what additional role do thymus hormones have beyond immune function?
They may help slow down the aging process
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What is the definition of eustress?
A positive form of stress that enhances well-being and motivation, contributing to growth and improved performance.
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What are the key characteristics of eustress?
1. Motivating: Inspires action to tackle challenges.
2. Short-term: Occurs in manageable bursts.
3. Perception: Viewed as within coping abilities, making it feel exciting.
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Provide examples of eustress
1. Preparing for a wedding or big event
2. Engaging in a challenging but enjoyable project
3. Setting and achieving personal or professional goals
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What is the definition of distress?
A negative form of stress that causes anxiety, overwhelm, and can be harmful to mental and physical health.
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What are the key characteristics of distress?
1. Chronic or acute: Can be short-term or ongoing.
2. Overwhelming: Exceeds coping abilities, leading to helplessness.
3. Negative impact: Causes physical symptoms and psychological effects.
202
Provide examples of distress.
1. Experiencing job loss or relationship breakup
2. Facing ongoing financial difficulties
3. Dealing with chronic illness or trauma
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What are the three types of stress?
Acute stress, episodic stress, and chronic stress
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What is acute stress?
A short-term stress response triggered by an immediate stressor, often resulting in a fight-or-flight response.
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What is episodic stress?
A type of stress that occurs in patterns or episodes, often arising from recurring stressors, such as frequent job pressures or relationship conflicts.
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What is chronic stress?
Ongoing, long-term stress resulting from persistent stressors, such as financial difficulties or a toxic work environment, which can have detrimental effects on health.
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How do stressors relate to the different types of stress?
The nature and duration of stressors determine whether the stress response is acute, episodic, or chronic.
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What is a stressor?
An event that may be threatening or exciting, triggering the stress response.
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What happens during the alarm stage of the stress response?
The body's initial reaction to the stressor occurs, involving changes that lower resistance to stress.
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What is the resistance stage of the stress response?
The stage where the body mobilizes resources to withstand stress and attempts to return to a normal state.
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What occurs during the exhaustion stage?
Prolonged, extreme stress depletes the body's resources, leading to functioning that is lower than normal.
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What can happen if stress persists without resolution?
It can lead to illness, breakdown of bodily functions, and potentially death.
213
What is the return to homeostasis?
Ideally, after managing stress, the body returns to a balanced state.
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