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Pharmacy Year 3 > Endocrinology > Flashcards

Endocrinology Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the basic structure of the endocrine system

A

Hormones used as chemical messengers between endocrine organs and target cells

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2
Q

What are primary endocrine glands?

A

Secretion of endocrine hormones is the organ’s primary function

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3
Q

What are secondary endocrine glands?

A

Primary function is not endocrine but organ is also capable of secreting hormones

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4
Q

List the primary endocrine organs in order down the body

A 
Pineal Gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Thymus
Adrenal Gland
Pancreas
Ovaries/Testes
Placenta
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5
Q

Give some examples of secondary organs

A 
Heart
Stomach
Liver
Kidneys
Small Intestine
Skin
Fat cells
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6
Q

Describe the position of the hypothalamus, pituitary and pineal glands

A

All found in brain

Hypothalamus situated above the pituitary glands

Pituitary split into posterior and anterior

Pineal gland in epithalamus (between two hemispheres)

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7
Q

How do the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary communicate?

A

Direct neural connection

Hormones are produced by body of magnocellular neurones and travel down axon for storage in pituitary

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8
Q

How do the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary communicate?

A

Circulartory system connection

Regulatory hormones are secreted into primary plexus from parvicellular neurones

Travel through portal system into secondary plexus in AP, triggering hormone release

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9
Q

What is the function of the pituitary?

A

Produces regulatory hormones to control other endocrine organs

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10
Q

Where is the pineal gland found?

A

The brain

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11
Q

What is the function of the pineal gland?

A

Produces melatonin which is responsible for regulating circadian rhythm

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12
Q

Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands found?

A

Below larynx around the trachea, parathyroid glands behind thyroid glands

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13
Q

What is the function of the thyroid gland?

A

Production of T3, T4 (metabolism regulation) and calcitonin

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14
Q

What is the function of the parathyroid gland?

A

Produces parathyroid hormones which is released when calcium levels drop

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15
Q

Where is the thymus located?

A

Close to heart

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16
Q

What is the function of the thymus?

A

Immune functions

Thymosin production stimulates T-cell activity (maturation of T-lymphocytes) and antibody production in bone marrow

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17
Q

Where is the pancreas located?

A

Just below the stomach

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18
Q

What is the function of the pancreas?

A

Control of blood glucose

Regulation of growth hormone production by somatostatin and ghrelin

Appetite and fat storage regulation

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19
Q

Where are the adrenal glands situated?

A

On top of the kidneys

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20
Q

What is the function of the adrenal glands?

A

Regulation of stress hormones

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21
Q

Describe the structure of the adrenal glands

A

Medulla

Cortex - Zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis

Capsule (connective tissue and blood vessel distribution)

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22
Q

Where are the ovaries located?

A

In the pelvic cavity

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23
Q

What is the function of the ovaries?

A

Production of oestrogen and progesterone steroid hormones and inhibin and relaxin protein hormones

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24
Q

Where are the testes located?

A

In the scrotum

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25
What is the function of the testes?
Release of androgens (mainly testosterone) and sperm production
26
What is the function of the placenta?
Connect foetus to uterine wall Nutrient uptake, waste removal, gas exchange from maternal blood supply Production of oestrogen and progesterone steroid hormones, CG, CRH and placental lactogenic protein hormones
27
What is the endocrine function of the heart?
Production of atrial natriuretic peptide Inc. salt secretion by kidneys lowering blood volume and pressure
28
What is the endocrine function of the GI tract?
Production of over 30 hormones
29
What is the endocrine function of the kidneys?
Secretion of renin by juxtaglomerular cells leading to increased aldosterone production Production of erythropoietin - signals RBC production in bone marrow
30
What is the endocrine function of the skin?
Modified cholesterol produced with UV exposure, form via D precursor Signals intestine to absorb calcium
31
What is the endocrine function of fat cells?
Release of leptin
32
Describe the pattern of cortisol released
Stress signal detected by hypothalamus ACTH and CRH stimulate cortisol release from adrenal glands Cortisol negatively feedbacks to hypothalamus inhibiting release of regulatory hormones
33
How can cortisol regulation be disturbed?
Long-term corticosteroid use
34
What is hypersecretion? Give some examples
Inappropriate production, overstimulation or little negative feedback May be due to genetic defect Hyperinsulinism, Cushing's disease, Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia, Graves' disease
35
What is hyposecretion? Give some examples
Damaged gland, reduced detection of signal or little release of hormone Hypothyroidism, diabetes, Addison's disease
36
What are endocrine tumours and what is their effect? Give some examples
Inappropriate cell division leading to increased tissue mass, may be benign or malignant Change in mass may lead to inappropriate production but not necessarily overproduction Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia, Pheochromocytoma
37
Give two examples of peptide hormones produced by the posterior pituitary and describe their structure and functions
Oxytocin - 9 a. acids (2 are isoleucine and leucine). Causes uterine contractions ADH - 9 a. acids (2 are phenylalanine and arginine). Antidiuretic function
38
Describe the structure and function of growth hormone
191 a. acids Protein hormone Mitogen - growth, cell division and cell regeneration Produced in anterior pituitary
39
Describe the structure and function of prolactin
198 a. acids Protein hormone Mammary development and lactation Produced in anterior pituitary
40
Describe the structure and function of FSH and TSH
Both produced in anterior pituitary Protein hormones Dimeric structure - alpha and beta chains joined by disulphide bonds. Both interact with receptor Similar to LH and hCG FSH - Follicular development, TSH - stimulates production of thyroid hormones
41
Describe the structure of insulin
Two polypeptide chains linked by disulphide bonds Placement of cysteine residues responsible for specific 3D shape Produced in pancreas
42
What are the functions of insulin?
Activates a number of cascades from endogenous kinase activity Inc. GLUT4 transporter activity, inc. number of transporters and inc. efficiency of uptake Decrease glycogenolysis Increase fat storage and protein production (build more insulin)
43
Which hormones are derived from tyrosine?
Dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, T3 and T4
44
Which hormones are derived from tryptophan?
Serotonin, then further modification to melatonin 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid - formed from serotonin, used to detect inappropriate levels
45
Give the basic structure of steroid hormones and give some examples
All modifications of standard C17, 4 ring structure - attached groups vary Progesterone, cortisol, testosterone, oestradiol
46
What are the options for delivery of protein and peptide drugs and why?
IV or SC injection, inhaled aerosol , depot formulations and modified release systems Oral administration difficult due to protein digestion
47
What hormones are released from the hypothalamus?
Prolactin releasing hormone Prolactin inhibiting hormone (Dopamine) Thyrotropin releasing hormone (release of TSH) Corticotropin releasing hormone (release of ACTH) Growth hormone releasing hormone Growth hormone inhibiting hormone Gonadotropin releasing hormone (release of FSH and LH)
48
What are tropic and non-tropic hormones? (REMEMBER)
Tropic hormones act on other endocrine glands to release more hormones Non-tropic have physiological effect on tissue FLAT PiG - FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, Growth hormone
49
What are the three cell types in the pituitary glands releasing tropic hormones?
Thyrotropes Gonadotropes Corticotropes
50
What is the most common pituitary tumour and how is it treated?
Prolactinoma Dopamine receptor agonists
51
Which cells in the pituitary gland produce non-tropic hormones?
Lactotropes Somatotropes
52
What problems arise from growth hormone hypersecretion? How is it treated?
Gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults Somatostatin - inhibits growth hormone
53
What problems arise from growth hormone hyposecretion? How is it treated?
Dwarfism Somatropin preparations
54
Give some examples of hypothalamic and pituitary hormones as treatments
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone - IV Protirelin injection, hypopituitarism Gonadotropin - Gonadorelin causes release of FSH and LH, endometriosis and infertility Vasopressin - Injection, pituitary diabetes insipidus
55
Describe the positive feedback mechanism of oxytocin
Pressure on cervix from uterine contractions activate sensory neurones, causing further release of oxytocin
56
When is synthetic oxytocin used?
Induction of labour
57
Describe the physiology of diabetes insipidus
Excess urine production ADH deficiency due to head trauma, tumour or infection. Hypothalamic No reaction to ADH from kidney cells due to renal disease, receptor gene mutations or aquaporin gene mutations
58
How is melatonin production controlled?
Light detection by retina prevents production, melatonin production regulates circadian rhythm
59
Where are corticosteroids produced?
Cortex Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) in zona fasciculata Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone) in zona glomerulosa
60
Where are androgen precursors produced?
Cortex Zona reticularis
61
Why are there different zones of hormone production in the adrenal cortex?
Each zone has different expression of enzymes, meaning only hormones specific to that enzyme can be produced
62
Which hormones are produced in the medulla?
Catecholamines (e.g. noradrenaline and adrenaline)
63
What is the name for the backbone of steroid hormones?
Cyclo-pentanoperhydrophenanthrene 17 carbon ring structure
64
When are steroid hormones synthesised?
When there is a demand in the body, not stored
65
What is the rate limiting step of steroidogenesis?
Conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone by pregnenolone synthase enzyme
66
How is steroidogensis regulated?
ACTH release causes activation of pregnenolone synthase, initiates conversion of cholesterol
67
What is conserved biosynthesis?
Same enzyme being used in a number of different pathways in different cell types
68
What are the functions of glucocorticoids?
Metabolism, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effect
69
What are the functions of mineralocorticoids?
Water/electrolyte balance, fluid volume, blood pressure
70
What are the functions of adrenal androgens?
Maturation and development
71
How do steroid hormones work?
Travel in blood bound to carrier proteins (main: transcortin) Enter cell membrane and picked up by cytoplasmic protein Initiate gene transcription and translation at the nucleus Can also interact with cell membrane receptors but not main function
72
What metabolic and stress responses arise from cortisol release
``` Lipolysis Gluconeogenesis Protein catabolism Blood vessels sensitised to adrenaline Reduces inflammation ```
73
How does aldosterone increase blood pressure?
Released due to angiotensin 2 presence at adrenal cortex Causes reabsorption of sodium ions in kidneys, therefore reabsorption of water. BP inc. AT2 also causes vasoconstriction
74
How can steroids be modified?
Varying durations of action Different steroid activity - but difficult to remove all glucocorticoid activity
75
Which backbone groups are modified to enhance glucocorticoid potency?
1-2 bond, ring A Beta OH-group, ring C OH-group, ring D
76
Which backbone groups are modified to enhance mineralocorticoid activity?
CH2OH-group, ring D
77
Which backbone groups are essential for gluco- and mineralocorticoid activity?
4-5 bond and 3-keto group, ring A
78
How is Addison's Disease treated using steroids?
Hydrocortisone (GC) with or without fludrocortisone (MC) depending on degree of adrenal gland function loss Concentrations mimic physiological concentrations, reducing side effects
79
What is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia?
Hyperfunction of adrenal cortex Genetic defect means enzyme to convert intermediate into cortisol isn't present, converted to androgens instead. No negative feedback mechanism
80
How is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia treated using steroids?
Synthetic cortisol to reinstall negative feedback mechanism, prevents inappropriate androgen production
81
What are the side effects associated with steroid use?
Cushing's syndrome - proteins, lipids and metabolites from primary tissues in circulation, fat deposition on face and around trunk Increased infection risk - esp. oral cavity, encourage frequent cleaning
82
How is steroidogenesis used as a drug target?
Inhibit enzymes in synthesis pathway Decrease steroid output Selectively block particular hormone

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