England's relations with Scotland and other foreign powers, 1485-1509 Flashcards
(8 cards)
What was the position of European powers during the reign of Henry VII?
Henry VII was more concerned with maintaining good international relations and defence than asserting English power in Europe
He sought positive relations with foreign powers to ensure national security, recognition of the Tudor dynasty and defence of English trading interests
Scotland was the only country with which England shared a border; cross-border lawlessness was a way of life. It often worked closely with France as part of the explicitly anti-English “auld alliance”
France was the most powerful European country. It actively sought to bring duchies like Brittany and Burgundy under direct control of the French Crown, posing important implications for wider European relations. France and England had a long-standing hostility, including the Hundred Years War 1337-1453
HRE was a loose federation of about 300 states, mostly situated in modern-day Germany. Emperor was elected but by late 15th century, he was always a member of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. Maximilian I was elected in 1486 and became emperor in 1493
Duchy of Burgundy’s medieval power had been broken with the death of Duke Charles the Bold in 1477, after which the lands of the duchy proper had been resumed by the French Crown. Eventually the title of Duke of Burgundy was passed to Maximilian (HRE) and most of the Low Countries fell under his suzerainty
1469 marriage between Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon brought the two kingdoms together and gave them a facade of unity. Death of Isabella in 1504 weakened this perception; in the following years, Ferdinand was involved in conflict to reassert his control over Castile, this had a significant effect on Henry VII’s foreign policy
Position of Ireland was somewhat an anomaly; there was no separate Irish state. Title “Lord of Ireland” had been granted to the King of England by the Pope in the 12th century
What were England’s relations with Brittany and France like?
Following an invasion in 1487 it seemed as though the French would gain complete control of Brittany, which was a fiefdom of the French Crown. This alarmed Henry and in 1489 he summoned parliament to grant him extraordinary revenue to raise an army against the French due to:
1) Sense of obligation towards the Bretons and their independence
2) Fear that direct French control of Brittany would increase potential French threat to England
February 1489 — England and Brittany agree the Treaty of Redon, under which the Duchess Anne would pay for a small English army to defend Brittany from potential threat
Henry VII also contacted HRE emperor Maximilian at the same time to try and strengthen his position. Maximilian had contracted a marriage-by-proxy contract with Anne; therefore he had no desire for the Duchy of Brittany to fall under French control
English army went to Brittany but Anne surrendered and reluctantly married Charles VIII, fearing the futility of prolonged resistance to the French. English army was left marooned in Brittany and Maximilian lost interest in the matter. Henry VII left in a difficult position; his situation was made worse by Perkin Warbeck seeking French support for his claim to the throne
Henry VII recovered his position skilfully:
1) 1492 — he launched an invasion of France rather late in the campaigning season; the French quickly sought a peace settlement. Henry VII had used information from his agents that Charles VIII was much more interested in launching an invasion of Italy, so would seek peace
2) November 1492 — at the signing of the Treaty of Etaples, Charles VIII agreed to withdraw support for Perkin Warbeck and to pay a pension of £5000 per annum to Henry VII to compensate him for the expense of having recruited an army of invasion
Henry VII’s strategy proved successful: he managed to defend dynastic and national interests; he improved his financial position; a period of relatively cordial Anglo-French relations was ensured
What were England’s relations with Burgundy and the HRE like?
Majority of England’s exports went through ports in Netherlands (eg. Antwerp, Bruges) which came under Burgundy’s jurisdiction. Maintenance of good relations was important for commercial reasons
Margaret of Burgundy was the prime upholder of the Yorkist cause, being the sister of Edward IV and Richard III. She enlisted the support of her stepson-in-law, Maximilian (became HRE in 1493); in 1494 he passed over jurisdiction of the Netherlands to his son Philip
Relations between England and Burgundy deteriorated as a result of the hospitality that Maximilian and Philip offered to Perkin Warbeck; Henry VII gambled that putting an embargo on trade with Burgundy would solve this issue
By prioritising his dynastic interests, Henry VII was prepared to sacrifice the commercial interests of London and east coast merchants; this made him more unpopular in these areas
After Perkin Warbeck left Burgundy, relations improved; Henry VII and Philip agreed on the Intercursus Magnus in 1496, which brought the trade embargo to an end
1504 — following the death of Isabella of Castile, Anglo-Burgundian relations once more became central to Henry VII’s foreign policy
1506 — Henry VII demanded a new trade agreement with Philip, the Intercursus Malus: this would have given English merchants a much stronger trading position in the Netherlands had it been enforced. Philip and Maximilian also agreed to hand over Yorkist fugitive the Earl of Suffolk
Henry VII appeared to have improved England’s trading position and the security of his dynasty in regards to his foreign relations with Burgundy/the Netherlands/the HRE
What were England’s relations with Spain like?
1489 — Treaty of Medina del Campo provided Henry VII with some international peace and security, to which he aspired. It implemented the following measures:
1) Two monarchies offered mutual protection in the case of an attack
2) Agreement to not harbour rebels or pretenders
3) Arrangement of a marriage alliance between Catherine of Aragon and Arthur, Prince of Wales
However, there were also a number of problems with the treaty’s implementation:
1) Arrangements for the royal marriage did not go smoothly
2) As long as Henry VII’s dynastic stability remained threatened by Perkin Warbeck, Ferdinand was reluctant to allow the marriage to go ahead
3)The monarchs argued over the size of Catherine’s dowry
Details of the marriage between the monarchs’ children were finally agreed in 1499 and it took place in 1501. Following Arthur’s death in 1502, a series of complications arose with Henry VII’s relations with Ferdinand:
1) Henry VII suggested for Catherine to marry his other son Henry, Ferdinand was reluctant to agree. He had little need for an English alliance, and such a marriage would require a papal dispensation, which would be arranged but at a price
2) 1504 — Henry VII lost his enthusiasm for the marriage after Isabella of Castile’s death made Ferdinand less politically significant
After the succession struggle between Ferdinand and Isabella’s sister Juana, Henry VII chose to support the latter
Juana and her husband Philip of Burgundy set sail for Spain in January 1506, but were forced to take refuge in England after their ship was wrecked at sea. Henry VII took advantage of their situation through securing a stronger relationship under the 1506 Treaty of Windsor:
1) Intercursus Malus restored trading relations and would have granted the English significant trading privileges, though this was never implemented
2) Earl of Suffolk, who was in the Netherlands, would be returned to England
3) roposed marriage alliance between Henry VII and Philip’s sister the Archduchess Maragaret, though this never took place
4) Henry VII’s recognition of Juana and Philip as rulers of Castile, which strengthened their claim to the throne
Soon after the couple’s arrival to Spain, Philip of Burgundy died. This proved disastrous for Henry VII:
1) Ferdinand described Juana as having gone mad in her grief. This gave him the opportunity to once more become regent of Castile
2) Henry VII was left diplomatically isolated as he had been outsmarted by Ferdinand, a major European monarch
3) Ferdinand ensured that the marriage between Catherine of Aragon and Prince Henry wouldn’t take place in Henry VII’s lifetime
What were England’s relations with Scotland like?
1485-95:
Anglo-Scottish relations were often tense. In the first few years of Henry VII’s reign, relationships remained relatively cordial
1495-96:
James IV came of age in 1495 and offered hospitality to Perkin Warbeck, who stayed for 2 years
Warbeck received a pension from the king, as well as an aristocratic marriage to James IV’s cousin Lady Catherine Gordon. James IV also encouraged him to cross the border with an army in 1496
The army was small, spent little time in England and received no support from the people of Northumberland. Retreated quickly upon hearing that an English force was making its way north from Newcastle
Attempt at invasion led Henry VII to raise a much larger army to launch an invasion of Scotland. Had political repercussions as it prompted a taxation rebellion the following year
1497:
Large-scale rebellion in Cornwall shook Henry VII. It was in the interests of both England and Scotland to secure an immediate truce, which took place at Ayton, a few miles north of the English border stronghold Berwick-upon-Tweed
1498 onwards:
Anglo-Scottish relations improved significantly. James IV no longer had any use for Warbeck as a result of this improvement, and he was executed in 1499. Improvements in relations lasted till end of Henry VII’s reign
The 1502 Treaty of Perpetual Peace formally sanctioned marriage between James IV and Henry’s daughter Margaret. The marriage took place the following year
What were England’s relations with Ireland like?
Henry VII’s power in Ireland only extended as far as the “Pale”, the region surrounding Dublin
Power in the rest of Ireland was held by the descendants of Anglo-Norman barons who had settled there in the 12th century. The most important were the Fitzgeralds/Geraldines and the Butlers
Dominant figure was Gerald Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare — Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1477. Feared by Henry VII because he had Yorkist sympathies; this suspicion was reinforced after he crowned Lambert Simnel in 1486, and supported Perkin Warbeck in 1491
Kildare’s actions forced Henry into response:
1) He attempted the more costly approach of ruling the “Pale” through an Englishman, backed by an armed force. This was instead of relying on the cheap but unreliable Irish aristocracy
2) Appointed infant son Henry as Lieutenant of Ireland and Sir Edward Poynings as his deputy
Poynings was initially successful in establishing royal authority through threat of force and bribery, attempted to implement English law in Ireland
1495 — Irish parliament required to pass the Poynings Law, which stated that it could not pass any law without the prior approval of the English Crown
Poynings’ strategy proved too expensive for Henry VII’s liking. Financial problems worsened when Warbeck returned to Ireland and amassed a force to besiege the town of Waterford. In 1495, faced with threat of invasion from the Scots, he was forced to recall Poynings and once again depend on the cheaper option of using Kildare as his deputy
In 1496 Kildare decided to no longer support the Yorkist cause and served Henry VII loyally, securing the submission of various Irish chieftains in the process. Kildare was likely to eager to support Henry as he could use his office to rebuild his family’s fortunes
By 1500 Henry VII had secured some level of peaceable and cheap authority in Ireland
What were the problems with securing the succession?
Before 1502 it seemed there would be no problem with succession, as in 1486 Henry VII’s wife Elizabeth had given birth to Prince Arthur, and in 1491 to Prince Henry
Arthur received the education fit for a prince and was set up with his own court at Ludlow in Shropshire. His unexpected death in April 1502 increased the insecurity of the dynasty as the heir to the throne was now Prince Henry, who was still a child
Arthur’s death raised the question of what would happen if Henry VII were to die whilst his son Henry was still a child, dynasty thus depended on Henry VII’s survival
Henry VII needed to dispose of the Earl of Suffolk, a Yorkist claimant who seemed to be gaining traction and influence. In 1506, Juana and Philip of Burgundy were forced to take refuge in England, giving Henry VII the opportunity to pressure Philip and his father Emperor Maximilian into handing Suffolk over to him
Growing split between councillors of the Council Learned (especially Empson and Dudley) and some of Henry VII’s other advisors (like Bishop Fox and Sir Thomas Lovell) who were looking to position themselves effectively once the king’s health finally failed
Fears about Suffolk, his brother Richard, as well as the Duke of Buckingham (descendant of Edward III), who could have launched an attempt at seizing the throne
Henry VII’s rapidly deteriorated in February 1509 and he died on 21st April the same year, his death was not announced straight away
Bishop Fox and his trusted friend within the Privy Chamber, Richard Weston, aided and abetted by Lady Margaret Beaufort, sought to manipulate the terms of the succession to their advantage and to position themselves around the new king. Empson and Dudley were excluded from their deliberations
King’s death announced on 23rd April, and the following day potential threats and troublemakers were rounded up and arrested, including Empson and Dudley
Which marriage alliances did Henry VII arrange during his reign?
Marriage alliances were an essential part of international diplomacy during this period, and all monarchs sought them to enhance their power and influence
Marriage alliances were important to Henry VII in order to bring about dynastic security
Henry VII planned to maintain an alliance with Spain by securing a marriage alliance between his son Arthur and Catherine of Aragon (daughter of Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon). When Arthur died, he quickly sought another marriage between Catherine and his son Henry instead
Henry VII arranged for his eldest daughter Margaret to marry James IV of Scotland, strengthening international relations with Scotland and weakening Perkin Warbeck’s threat to the Tudor throne
During Henry VIII’s reign, Henry VII’s younger daughter Mary would marry the much older Louis XII of France in order to secure peaceful relations between the two countries
After the death of his wife in 1503, Henry VII himself tried to re-enter the marriage market. Alliances with Castile, Aragon, France and HRE were considered, but none proved fruitful — concerned princesses proved reluctant to marry him, he gradually lost enthusiasm for the prospect of marriage
