environment, health and well-being Flashcards
(78 cards)
1
Q
What is DALY?
A
- stands for disability-adjusted life years
- measures the gap between current levels of health and ideal health
- one DALY is equivalent to one fewer yr of healthy life
- calculated using years of life lost due to early death and years lost due to disability
- DALY = YLL + YLD
2
Q
What is HALE?
A
- The average number of years that an individual lives in full health
- Stands for healthy life expectancy
3
Q
Outline the social developments that are linked with improving health
A
- improved sanitation
- better education about sanitation and disease transmission
- advances in medical technology such as antibiotics and vaccines
- better training for doctors/nurses
4
Q
Outline the economic developments that are linked with improved healthcare
A
- technology to improve food productivity and supply (green revolution)
- improved transport infrastructure to distribute food and medical supplies
- investment in drainage and sewage systems
- trading of resources/manufactured goods in exchange for wider variety of foods and medicine
5
Q
What is the forth epidemiological transition?
A
- stage added in 1980s as a result of increased development in healthcare
- declining death rates are conc. at advanced ages
heart diseases/stroke/cancer are main causes of mortality - life expectancy increased to 70-80
6
Q
Outline the features of the third epidemiological transition
A
- late 20th century - known as age of chronic diseases
- elimination of infectious diseases makes way for chronic diseases among elderly
- majority of deaths are man-made/degenerative eg cancer/diabetes
- low levels of mortality and fertility - little population growth
- increased demand for healthcare related to the diseases of older people
7
Q
Outline the features of the second epidemiological transition
A
- occurred 200 yrs ago - during the industrial revolution
- brought new chronic/ non-infectious, degenerative diseases
- known as age of receding pandemics
involved reduction in prevalence of infectious diseases and fall in mortality rates - clean water/sanitary sewage - life expectancy increased from 35 to 50 years
brought chemical toxins/working indoors/stress - led to rises in asthma/allergies/autoimmune disorders and STDs - high fertility rates - population rapidly growing
8
Q
Outline the features of the first epidemiological transition
A
- occurred over 100 centuries ago
agricultural society - people stayed in one place increasing their contact with human/animal waste and contaminating their water supplies
- cultivation of soil and the clearing of land exposed people to insect bites, bacteria and parasites
- known as age of pestilence and famine
infectious diseases were dominant causing high mortality rates especially in children - domestication of animals brought other disease vectors in close contact with humans (fever/TB)
9
Q
What are the three stages of the epidemiological transition and what are they characterised by?
A
- the age of pestilence of pestilence and famine
- the age of receding pandemics
- the age of chronic diseases
characterised by fertility levels and causes of death
10
Q
What is the epidemiological transition?
A
A characteristic shift in disease pattern of population as mortality falls during demographic transition; acute, infectious diseases are reduced, while chronic, degenerative diseases increase in prominence causing a gradual shift in the age pattern of mortality from younger to older ages
11
Q
What is a communicable disease?
A
A disease that is spread from person to person
12
Q
What is a non-communicable disease?
A
A medical condition/disease that is non-infectious and non transmissible amongst people
13
Q
Define the word mortality
A
Related to death. It can be measured by death rate, infant mortality, case mortality and attack rate. Non - communicable diseases and cancer have claimed the most lives.
14
Q
Define the word morbidity
A
Relates to illness and disease. It can also be used to describe the incidence of a disease within society. Some diseases are so infectious that by law they must be reported (malaria and TB)
15
Q
Define the word health
A
Defined by the World Health Organisation as a state of complete, physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absense of disease or infirmity
16
Q
What are vector-borne diseases?
A
- Diseases caused by a vector passing on a pathogen to a human.
- eg malaria which is spread by mosquitos when they bite humans
- they rely on specific conditions that allow them to live and breed eg high temperatures and bodies of water and these allow the mosquitos to thrive
most mosquito - borne diseases are prevalent in the tropics
17
Q
What environmental variables can influence the incidence of disease?
A
- topography and drainage
- sunlight and exposure
- extreme weather events
18
Q
How does extreme weather as an environmental variable influence the incidence of disease?
A
- Some areas are more prone to environmental hazards than others (tropical storms/floods etc)
- extreme climatic events bring disease after they strike especially in the case of water borne diseases
- cholera, typhoid, dysentery are all spread in water meaning after natural disasters there are common outbreaks of these
- however, the spread of diseases is not exclusively caused by environmental variables as socio-economic status plays a significant role
19
Q
How does topography as an environmental variable influence the incidence of disease?
A
- low lying areas (floodplains and valleys next to steep hills) are particularly prone to water-borne diseases
- they tend to have poor drainage and stagnant pools of water can develop
- floodplains also host water-borne diseases as they are consistently flooded and over saturated
- increases rates of respiratory infections and typhoid fever occur after floods in developing regions due to contaminated water
20
Q
Briefly explain how Haiti were affected by water-borne diseases after the 2010 earthquake
A
- before the disaster struck, the country lacked a public sewage system and under half the population had access to drinking water.
- malnutrition was rampant and only half the childhood population had been vaccinated against diseases eg diptheria
- in the cramped and unhygienic refugee camps infectious diseases spread rapidly especially cholera
- between 2010 and 2014, UNICEF reported around 700,000 cases and 8500 deaths from cholera alone in Haiti
21
Q
How does lack of sunlight as an environmental variable influence the incidence of disease?
A
- causes deficiencies like Vitamin D deficiency
known to lead to muscle weakness/bone pain/rickets - Aboriginal Arctic populations are some of the most affected by this deficiency
- SAD correlates to geographical location - areas that experience low daylight hours in winter months have higher rates of SAD
22
Q
How does overexposure to sunlight influence the incidence of disease?
A
- various types of skin cancer can develop from overexposure to UV radiation
- Australia has the highest skin cancer rates in the world - partly due to the high amounts of UV exposure it receives
23
Q
How can air quality affect health?
A
- air can be contaminated by a number of pollutants that can cause illness when inhaled
- 91% of the population live in areas of unsatisfactory air quality
24
Q
What are the two main types of air pollution?
A
- Ambient (outdoor) air pollution
- Household air pollution
25
Explain how ambient air pollution affects health
anthropogenic (human) activities contribute much more severely to ambient air pollution than natural causes (forest fires)
sources include fossil fuel combustion/industrial facilities/burning waste and use of polluting fuels whilst cooking and heating
can affect the cardiovascular and respiratory health of a population
those living in low and middle income countries are disproportionately affected by air pollution with 88% of premature deaths occurring in developing countries such as Southeast Africa
26
Explain how household air pollution affects health
- caused by a variety of issues
- mainly through the burning of polluting fuels inside households that are not properly ventilated
- smoke, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide etc can be emitted through burning fuels inside when cooking/heating
27
What impacts does air pollution have on health?
- lung disease
- strokes
- heart attacks
- cancer
- respiratory problems
28
Explain how water quality affects health
- diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are carried in water which when ingested can cause illness and sometimes death
- limited access to clean water creates poor water quality
- in LICs many use the same water supply for dumping human waste, cleaning themselves and drinking
- faecal matter in water supplies can cause illness and spread disease
- toxicants may enter water supplies and have the potential to poison/kill
- factories may dump toxic waste into water supplies or insecticides and pesticides can enter water supplies after rainfall
29
What is environmental change?
- refers to a change or disturbance in the environment
- can be caused by both human and natural processes
30
What is ozone depletion?
- the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical compounds from industry and other human activities
- result of pollution
mainly due to the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which break down ozone when they enter the atmosphere and react
31
How does air pollution occur in houses?
- dust mites
- high humidity (causes mould)
- gas stoves (cause CO2)
32
Describe two water - related diseases and their morbidity
- diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera are caused by bacteria/chemicals in water that people drink. Inadequate drinking water, sanitation and hygiene are estimated to cause 842000 diarrhoeal disease deaths per year
- schistosamiasis is an acute and chronic diseases caused by parasitic worms that have part of their lifecycle in water. People are infected during exposure to infested water. An estimated 260 million are sufferers from this disease
33
What is the issue with ozone depletion?
More UV rays will reach the earth having harmful impacts on human health such as increased prevalence of skin cancers, cataract formation, eye diseases etc dur to excessive UV radiation weakening the immune system
34
What are the health impacts associated with ozone depletion
- skin cancer: caused by UV exposure as it damages the DNA in skin cells. Malignant melanoma incidence rates have increased more than fivefold since the mid 1970s. Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world due to a combo of a light skinned population with tropical latitudes and high levels of UV
- cataracts: form of eye damage which causes a loss of transparency in the lens of the eye leading to cloudiness of vision and in some cases blindness due to exposure to UV radiation.
35
Outline the impacts of climate change on health
- agricultual productivity
- nutritional standards
- cold spells and heatwaves
- vector borne diseases
36
What are the direct impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity?
Gains in productivity:
- In mid and high latitudes, the crop yields are projected to increase and extend northwards, especially for cereals and cool season seed crops (oil seed rape)
- crops grown in lower latitudes such as maize could become viable further north and at higher altitudes meaning yields could increases by 30% by 2050
Losses in productivity:
- an increases in the mean growing season temp will bring forward the harvest time of current varieties and possibly reduce final yield
- in areas where temps are already close to the physiological limits for crops, (seasonally arid/tropical regions), higher temps will be detrimental, increasing the heat stress on crops and water loss by evaporation.
- varying rainfall patterns will have a significant impact of productivity. Predicted increase in high latitude rainfall especially in winter and an overall decrease in many parts of the tropics/subtropics
37
What are the indirect impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity?
- pests and diseases: aphids and weevil larvae respond positively to higher CO2 levels. Increased temps also reduce overwintering mortality of pests enabling earlier/more widespread dispersion
- changes in water availability: water for irrigation is extracted from rivers which depend upon distant climatic conditions. eg - agriculture along the Nile in Egypt depends on rainfall in the upper reaches of the river such as in the Ethiopian Highlands
- sea level rise: vulnerability of crop productivity is greatest where large sea-level rise occurs in conjunction with low-lying coastal agriculture.
38
What is the impact of climate change on nutritional standards in developed regions?
- increasing food prices may lower nutritional quality of dietary intakes and exacerbate obesity
-promotion of healthier diets may increase consumption of foods eg- reducing red meat consumption will have positive effects on saturated fat in the diet but negative impacts on zinc and iron intake
- changes in agricultural production may lead to use of different pesticides and vet. medicines having implications for food safety/nutritional content of food
39
What is the impact of climate change on nutritional standards in developing regions?
- nations experiencing rapid economic growth often go through a 'nutrition transition' where increased affluence guides the population to a more 'westernised' diet
- China has seen a sig. shift from primarily cereal consumption to meat consumption.
- increased livestock production will increase methane emissions, require more land usage for fodder production and so more clearance of forests
40
What are the impacts of climate change on nutritional standards in the least developed regions?
- most vulnerable to loss of production
- predictability of rainfall is critical for rain-fed agriculture and climate change has given an unpredictable combo of extended periods of rainfall and droughts- both resulting in crop failure
- over-reliance on fewer crops - exclusive diets on particular crops lead to malnutrition
- deficiencies - lack of variety in food causes diseases such as rickets
- malnutrition makes people less able to fight against biologically transmitted diseases
41
What are the impacts of climate change on heatwaves?
- main risks are dehydration, overheating and heatstroke
- smog leads to high concs of nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter in atmosphere
- growth of algae in water causes problems for aquatic life/ toxic algal blooms
- wildfires
- water shortages
42
What are the impacts of climate change on cold spells?
- extremes of cold severely impact those suffering with cardiovascular or respiratory diseases and lead to an increase in mortality
- death rates in winter can be 25% higher than in summer
- climate change is likely to bring milder winters in temperate regions. For most cities studied, climate change is likely to lead to a reduction in mortality rates due to decreasing winter mortality
43
How is climate change affecting the emergence and distribution of vector-borne diseases?
- once limited geographic ranges of vector - borne diseases is expanding, mainly due to humans. By 2100, estimated average global temps will rise by 1-3.5 degrees increasing likelihood of vector-borne diseases in new areas
- eg Lyme disease is influenced by climate change - tick-borne disease transferred through tick bites. In NE USA, warmer temps have sig. influenced tick behavioural patterns causing it to become a greater health risk
- warmer temps means they are active earlier in the year = around for longer = pass on the disease for more months.
44
Malaria case study - (CD) - who is affected?
- approx 40% of world's pop are at risk of catching malaria
- it kills over 1 mill people annually and affects up to 500 million people
- main area of incidence is Sub-saharan Africa (Mozambique) where it affects 50% of the population with over 100 confirmed cases per 1000 people
45
What conditions are favourable for mosquitos to thrive?
- parasitic mosquito-borne disease common in tropical areas where the anopheles mosquitoes can survive and multiply
- need temps of above 20 degrees and prefer humid conditions such as valleys and irrigation channels
- tend to inhabit densely- populated fertile farming lands
46
What symptoms does malaria cause?
- severe fever and flu - like symptoms
- vomiting and headaches
- can disrupt the blood supply to vital organs and can either kill a person directly or weaken their immune system
47
How do physical variables and the socio-economic environment lead to different levels of malaria?
- prevalent in places with high rainfall and hot weather - suitable conditions for mosquitos to thrive
- coastal areas are lower in altitude and generally have a higher humidity making it a suitable condition for the disease to thrive
- referred to as a disease of poverty - burden is greatest among the world's poorest countries - 58% of total global burden is conc. among poorest 20% of global pop. - common here due to lack of drugs and vaccines
48
What variables increase the risk of malaria incidence?
- unsanitary conditions (polluted rubbish/waste surrounding houses)
- occupation (agricultural workers are more exposed to the mosquito vector especially those living near stores of irrigation water
- income (those with higher incomes spend more on repellants etc that reduces risk)
- housing quality (densely clustered built up areas and overcrowded rooms increase risk)
49
Discuss the impact of malaria on health, economic development and lifestyle
- countries with malaria have incomes 33% below those without it
- causes sever illnesses and deaths especially pregnant women and children under 5
- have an economic growth 1.3% per person per year less than those without it
- places financial burdens on families due to individual medical costs - African families spend a quarter of their annual income on these
- cost of preventative measures (bed - nets)
- loss of earnings (cannot work when ill)
- loss of productivity for employers - cost Africa around £160 bill in productivity over the past 35 years
- reduced investment in area eg tourism (limits amount of outdoor activity available)
- slows economic growth, hindering development and prolongs viscious cycle of poverty
50
How is malaria managed and treated?
- key interventions include prompt and effective treatment, use of insecticidal nets by people at risk, and indoor residual spraying with insecticide to control the vector mosquitoes
- in parts of the world, the parasites have developed resistance to malaria treatments so this holistic approach offers better protection
- sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets is seen as an effective low-cost strategy - they create a barrier against the mosquitos that bite at night
- bed nets can reduce malaria transmissions by as much as 90%
- burning mosquito coil is favoured in places such as Asia and S America however it is discouraged due to the pollutants it contains
- anti-malarial tablets
51
Global prevalence and distribution of CHD (a NCD)
- leading cause of death world wide accounting for around 7.5 mill deaths annually
- rates vary considerably among pops and risk of heart attacks within pops from across the world can be ascribed to the varying levels of a no. of risk factors among individuals
- heart attacks occur when blood vessels supplying the heart muscle become blocked starving it of oxygen and leading to heart muscle failure or death
52
What is the link between CHD and the physical environment?
- air quality: industrialisation has brought a no. of negative effects. Studies in the US have shown that increased exposure to airborne pollutants especially particulate matter increases risk of CHD
- climate: CHD mortality rates are higher in areas with lower average temps and hours of sunshine. Cold/damp winters in temperate climates have a negative impact on the cardiorespiratory system which increases risk of heart attack
- relief and topography: no clear link but more challenging relief requires more physical effort when walking - can be advantageous in increasing exercise but a threat for those with underlying health risks
53
What is the link between CHD and the socio-economic environment?
- in developed countries, socio-economic factors/lifestyle choices are much more important determinants of CHD prevalence. eg poor diet is estimated to account for 1/3 of all deaths associated with CHD in England
- interaction between genetic, lifestyle etc factors increase risk:
- social deprivation - pos. correlation between deaths from circulatory diseases and deprivation
- tobacco use (mortality from CHD is 60% higher)/alcohol use (2% of men in dev. countries reported by WH report)
- high cholesterol (45% of heart attacks in W Europe)
- ethnicity (S Asian people moving to more developed regions have a higher premature death rate from CHD)
54
What are the impacts of CHD on health and wellbeing?
- most common symptom is angina, a low level but fairly constant chest pain which can spread to other parts of upper body. Pain can increase when heart is put under stress
- other symptoms include heart attacks/failure. Attacks can permanently damage heart muscle and can be fatal.
- those at high risk can undergo heart bypass surgery to reduce risk (is stressful/risky)
- rehab focuses on exercise /education about lifestyle choices etc
- may be required to take medication for the rest of their lives - this may include warfarin (thins blood) which may have side effects
55
What are the economic impacts of CHD?
- impacts include cost to individual and to family of healthcare and time off work
- cost to government of healthcare and cost to country of lost productivity
- in 2009, CHD is estimated to have cost the UK health system around £8.7 bill and cost to UK economy was around 319 bill
- healthcare costs associated with smoking-related illnesses result in a global net loss of $200 bill per yr with 1/3 of those losses occurring in developing countries
- no. of people who die/disabled by CHD could be halved with wider use of a combo of drugs that costs just $14 a yr per patient
56
How can prevention mitigate the risk of CHD?
- educating the public, making treatments affordable/available and advising patients on healthy-living practices
- In the UK dieticians promote eating oily fish, more fruit and veg and less sat. fat
- In Japan, gov. led health education campaigns and increased treatment of high blood pressure have reduced blood - pressure levels in population
- In Mauritius, change from palm to soya oil for cooking has brought down cholesterol levels
57
Explain the importance of education on CHD
- essential to promote healthy choices
- schools are ideal for this as they provide a healthy diet, prohibit smoking and allow opportunities for exercise
58
Explain how policies and legislation can help reduce the risk of CHD
- most common legislation involves reducing tobacco smoking which has clear links to reducing heart disease
- includes advertising bans, smoke-free areas, health warnings on packets etc
59
What are the three types of international health organisations?
- multilateral organisations
- bilateral organisations
- non-governmental organisations
60
What does multilateral mean?
- funding comes from multiple governments and is distributed to many different countries. The major multilateral organisations are all part of the UN - the WHO included
61
What is the role of the WHO?
- multilateral organisation that provides healthcare to impoverished people in developing nations
- provides gov. with technical help to supply healthcare and deliver emergency aid in times of crisis
- works to prevent and control epidemics eg aids, Tuberculosis and Malaria
62
Outline some of the WHO's successes
- greatest triumph= eradicating smallpox from globe (1977)
- encouraged breast feeding
- campaigned to immunise children in developing nations against diseases eg diphtheria, measles
- biggest impact - influence on public health medicine - emphasis on community solutions rather than hospital based healthcare has led to revolution in design of health services in both developing and industrialised nations
63
Outline some of the WHO's failures
- Malaria = more resistant to drugs than orig. thought despite the WHO saying it would be eradicated
- Cholera/diarrhoea/TB still killing thousands each yr in developing world despite available cures
- missuse of antibiotics has caused problems with TB as it has become resistant to initial treatments
- the WHO has found itself under scrutiny by major financial donors - the budget to fight AIDs has continues to grow
- as result = losing its role as world's main health authority
64
Outline the role of the World Bank and UNICEF
World Bank
- loans money to poor countries
UNICEF
- makes world's most vulnerable children its top priority
- devotes most of its resources to the poorest countries and to children younger than 5
- in 1994, it spent $202 mill on child health and $30 mill on child nutrition
65
What is the role of NGOs in combatting disease?
- aka private voluntary organisations
- provide approx 20% of all external health aid to developing countries
- most are small - many church affiliated
- attributes that increase their potential includes - their ability to reach areas of severe need/their promotion of local involvement/their relatively low cost of operations
- eg Medecins Sans Frontieres
- eg International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
66
Outline the role of the ICRCRCM
- ICRC protects and assists prisoners of war and civilians in international armed conflicts
- also offers its services in civil wars
- sets up surgical hospitals and provides expatriate teams to work in existing hospitals
- main mission is to provide disaster relief
67
Outline the role of Medecins sans frontieres
- provide health aid to victims of war and natural disasters and provide aid in chronic emergencies
- treats malnutrition with therapeutic food which includes nutrients needed by children- can be stored for long periods
-projects in over 60 countries requiring rapid response/long-term medical help to tackle diseases including malaria/cholera
- challenges high cost of existing medicines and treatment for many diseases affecting developing countries
68
How does Accrington's physical environment influence health?
- quality significantly impacts residents' health
- ranked amongst most deprived in terms of Living Environment Deprivation domain
- poor housing conditions and limited access to recreational areas can contribute to health issues such as respiratory problems
access to green spaces is vital for promoting physical activity and mental well-being. Peel park and the coppice are green spaces that offer residents opportunities for recreation. However, disparities in such amenities can contribute to health inequalities within the town
69
What are the socio-economic characteristics of Accrington?
- unemployment rate in Hyndburn (2021) was 5.7% higher than the national average of 3.8%
- the town has a lower level of home ownership(50.61%) compared to national average
- economic deprivation is linked to higher rates of health issues, including mental health disorders and chronic diseases
70
What are the community attitudes and initiatives in Accrington?
- community attitudes towards health sig. influence health outcomes
- in Accy, initiatives focusing on environmental improvements such as projects in Peel Park and the coppice reflect a community commitment to enhance public health through better physical environments.
- aims to address environmental factors that contribute to health disparities, demoeing the community's proactive approach to improving health outcomes
71
What is food security?
- refers to a humans ability to access a diet of sufficient quantity and quality to meet their daily health needs
72
Explain why the majority of countries at risk of food insecurity are in Sub-saharan Africa
- a combo of environmental, economic, political and social factors
- droughts and flooding (impacts agricultural production)
- soil degradation (overgrazing/deforestation) leads to soil erosion
- poverty limits peoples ability to access nutritious food
- civil wars disrupt food production -difficult to transport
73
How does improving nutrition and dietary diversity improve global food security?
How does tackling climate change through adaptation strategies improve global food security?
How does increasing investment in agriculture through research and development improve global food security?
- encourages cultivation of diverse crops that are both nutritionally rich and resilient to climate change
- promote nutrition education to help people make healthier food choices which could help reduce malnutrition
- develop and implement strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate long-term impacts of climate change on agriculture
- develop more high yielding and climate-smart crop varieties - includes innovations in biotech and efficient irrigation systems
74
How could increasing food production ensure food security?
- we can meet the rising consumption needs of a growing population
- reduces hunger and malnutrition - ensures a more abundant supply of food and helps stabilise food prices/makes food more accessible and affordable
- tech adoption - advances in agricultural tech can sig. boost food production - can help farmers increase efficiency, reduce waste and optimise the use of resources such as water
75
How could improving post-harvest practices ensure food security?
- reduces food loss and waste - large portions are lost due to poor storage conditions- by improving storage methods food can be preserved for longer periods reducing amount of food that spoils before it is eaten
- improving food availability - extending shelf life means food can be stored and consumed during lean seasons
76
What was the green revolution and how did it help food security?
- a set of agricultural practices aimed at increasing agricultural yields and providing food security
- increased food production: led to substantial increases in staple crops (wheat/rice) and helped to alleviate food shortages part. in regions suffering from hunger and malnutrition
- reduced hunger and famine - high risk countries eg India faced frequent shortages but after the Green revolution the country was able to achieve self-sufficiency in food production reducing threat of famine
77
What is the gene revolution and how can it help food security?
- application of biotech in food production
- increased crop yields - higher productivity- GM can lead to higher crop yields by improving resistance to pests, diseases and environmental stresses - this helps ensure there is enough food produced to feed the growing pop.
- improved crop resilience - climate adaptability - crops that are GM can withstand extreme weather and can ensure consistent food production
78
Why is biotech research/development in GM so controversial?
- has potential to improve agricultural productivity however
- biodiversity loss - GM crops outcompete native plant leading to a loss of genetic diversity
- pest resistance - leads to evolution of pest populations resistant to specific toxin produced by crops which could lead to more pesticide use that is harmful to environment
- animal testing - ethical concerns - raises concerns about treatment of animals used in research
