Environmental Ethics Flashcards
(82 cards)
1
Q
What is environmental ethics?
A
Considers the ethical relationship between people and the natural world and the kind of decisions people have to make about the environment.
2
Q
Why is it especially important in modern times?
A
The effect of global warming. There has been a rapid growth in knowledge and technology. Action has to be taken, but there is no agreed ethics for environmental issues or a common code.
3
Q
What is the traditional western approach?
A
An anthropocentric approach, human focussed.
4
Q
What is conservatism?
A
Shallow ecology, the theory that the environment’s importance is related to its usefulness for humanity ( Christianity.)
5
Q
What is instrumental value?
A
The belief that something is valuable because of its importance to something else e.g.g we need food.
6
Q
What does it mean to be anthropocentric?
A
The belief that humanity is central and most important.
7
Q
What is intrinsic value?
A
The belief that something is valuable is itself.
8
Q
What does it mean to be bio centric?
A
The biological nature of and diversity of the earth is of supreme importance.
9
Q
Christian approaches to the environment: What is dominion?
A
Means to rule over, subdue and have authority over. The idea that humans see themselves as the centre of the universe not a component of nature but above it.
10
Q
Who supported dominion?
A
Aristotle: “ Since nature makes nothing purposeless or in vain, it is undeniably true that she has made all animals for the sake of man.”
11
Q
Who developed this?
A
Aquinas continued this idea that humans are the only morally important being s on earth ‘ all humans are naturally subject to man. Suggests humans can do as the please as the Bible states nature is the inanimate creation of God, so they think God has a special concern for humans.
12
Q
What Bible evidence is there of dominion?
A
Genesis 1: God made humans “ in his image” and “likeness” implying higher power over nature. Genesis 1:28: God told humans to “reign over the fish in the sea the birds in the sky and all the animals that scurry along the ground.” Leading to the interpretation that creation is for humans and they have the right to exploit the environment.
13
Q
What is a strength of this?
A
Plausible to believe as the chapter in Genesis suggest humans are above nature, use of words like “reign”, “rule” and “dominion.”
14
Q
What are the weaknesses?
A
Possibly a misinterpretation as seems unlikely an all lovign God would desire us to value ourselves above creation. Lyn White: The historical roots of our ecological crisis suggests the current environmental disaster is down to the Christian command to have ‘dominion’ over the earth.
People have moved from nature centred religions to dominion over nature,. The ecological crisis will be resolved when we reject this.
The Bible teaches respect.
St Francis of Assisi disputed, as thought nature was significant as God communicates to use through the natural worlds, which reflects God’s goodness and inspires us to respect and love. It is a sin to take the do minion approach and manipulate nature to our advantage.
15
Q
What is the fall?
A
Genesis 3: The serpent said to the woman “ you will not certainly die”. “For god knows that when you eat from it your eyes will be opened and you will be like God knowing good and evil.” Eve ate, the fruit from the tree of knowledge despite God telling her not to and she gave some to Adam who ate it. Their eyes were opened and they realised they were naked.
16
Q
What do Christians believe after the fall?
A
We need to use our knowledge to rectify and re establish our bond between God and humanity, and God and the natural world, We need to protect out environment and using past mistakes as learning tools to correct our mistakes where possible, Ensuring western lifestyles don’t impinge on poorer nations lives.
17
Q
What will happen if we care for the environment properly?
A
We can avoid needless exploitation, for our own gain it will help us to obtain peace, harmony and justice. We should ultimately live by the rules, love of God and love of one’s neighbour, fundamental in Christian Ethics and applying to the environment.
18
Q
What has this original sin caused?
A
Environmental problems of the earth drying up and withering. We need to re-establish the broken bond between God and the natural world to achieve a peaceful and harmonious world.
19
Q
What are the strengths of this theory?
A
Explain why we have environmental problems.
Gives us a way to solve the problems we are faced with.
Logical if we help to improve our environmental the world will become more peaceful.
20
Q
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
A
For it to be plausible you have to believe in God and that the Bible is literally true.
Makes a leap form original sin to environment when they aren’t clearly linked.
Stems form Adam and Eve no empirical evidence to prove original sin.
21
Q
What does rapture and end time theology think about the environment?
A
Concern is irrelevant and destruction is welcomed and should be helped.
The environment is not significant and humans are the greatest species. We should destroy nature to speed up the apocalypse.
22
Q
What did Pastor John Hagee think?
A
Environmental issues display: “ all over the earth, graves will explode as the occupants ( believers) soar into heaven.” Non believers left on earth for 7 years of suffering after this Christians come back and fight anti Christ in the battle of armageddon, re green the earth.
23
Q
Who usually takes this view?
A
Mainly shared by born again Christians e.g. Jimmy Carter.
24
Q
What are the strengths of this theory?
A
Hal Lindsay - the late great planet earth 1970. Rapture imminent based on world conditions. Aspects of 1970s politics predicted in the Bible e.g. cold war, EU in 1970s 10 nations but no 27 involved!
Predictions of rapture date back to theologians like St Augustine.
25
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
Many failed predictions e.g. 2011.
Eastern orthodox, Roman catholic and many protestants reject it.
Scientists believe it will be a very long time 5 billion years until earth is destroyed when the sun dies.
26
What is the creation story?
God created the earth in 7 days, humans on 6th day, day of rest.
If God values creation an creation can respond to God suggestion all creation has intrinsic value.
We are given dominion over all creation : " let them have dominion over the fish in the sea."
Backs up Singer's anthropomorphism in biblical texts.
27
How can it be interpreted in different ways?
Humans made in the image of God appreciate intrinsic value of natural world.
St Francis of Assisi view ( form earlier.)
Not plausible to atheists who don't believe in God.
Creation may show why Christians should respect nature and treat the rest of God's creation equally.
28
What is the view of stewardship?
Responsible planning and management of resources can be applied to the environment and nature, having responsibility to look after God's created world.
29
What biblical evidence is there?
Genesis 1: Exploitation as man " in his image" dominion, but should this mean rule over and who we should do as we please. Some think it means we should have responsibility to care for the world as it belongs to God.
Genesis 2: Puts man in the Garden of Eden to "work it and take care of it." Stewards.
30
What is the central concept?
Humans are the peak of God's creation but only is as much as we are creature who God has selected to regulate the response of the natural world to its creator.
31
What 2 roles to humans have?
To conserve and care for creation e..g supporting projects that prevent deforestation of biodiverse areas with high levels of endemic species.
To act as the director of nature's obedience to God.
32
What are the strengths of this/
Some philosophers criticise the trad Christian idea for placing humans at the moral centre Lyn White: the historical roots of our ecological crisis.
Humans are stewards responsible to God for their use of God's creation. Peter 4:10 " as each has received a gift, use it to serve one another, as stewards of God's varied grace."
33
What are the weaknesses?
Dominion - Genesis Adam and Eve multiply, fill earth and subdue it.
34
What is conservation ethics?
Shallow ecology, light green environmentalism. value to humans. Reducing, reusing recycle is for humanity to survive. Plants and animals have instrumental value. Means to an end. If what it produces has importance for humans it must be protected and preserved e.g. disease carrying mosquitoes died out wouldn't care.
Only humans are sentient have true moral worth and standing.
35
What did La Bossiere think?
Anthropocentric approach can be justified as part of the natural order of evolution.
Animals becoming extinct due to human activities nature taking its course e..g bali tiger - hunted. Benefits us so doesn't really matter.
Humans shouldn't try and wipe out specific species, but if it becomes extinct naturally as a result of human activity doesn't really matter.
36
What would he think about the chernobyl disaster 1986?
Nuclear accident and nuclear power plant in Ukraine, environment decimated, problems arise form human desire to advance technologically.
If nuclear power is possiblty a solution to out energy needs disasters e..g chernobyl need to e taken into account. Allows us to learn from our mistakes and scientific progression.
37
When has the shallow ecology approach been used?
Kyoto protocol 1995, panicking need the environment can't let it run out, so conserve and protect it.
38
What is deep ecology?
Libertarianism - belief all life forms have intrinsic value. Bio centric. Speciest discrimination in shallow ecology in favour of human s over other species.
Ecosophy - the idea all living things humans, animals or plants have rights.
39
Where did this originated from?
1949, Aldo Leopold's ' sand country Almanac' calling for new approach. " A thing is right when it tend to preserve the integrity stability and beauty of the biotic community, It is strong when it tends otherwise." Wrong to see the world in terms of economic worth before shallow ecology dominant , for humans.
Think about relationship with land, animals and plants as intrinsically important.
40
What did AArne Naess think?
' The shallow and the deep long range ecology movement. Every being whether human, animal or vegetable has equal right to live and blossom= eocsophy.
" By an ecosophy I mean a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium."
Nature doesn't exist to serve humans, requires a change in how humans act towards the natural world.
Christian view on stewardship arrogant as assures superiority over animals.
41
What did Naess and Sessions come up with?
Deep ecology platform. Humans should: Radically reduce the Erath's population. Abandon all goals of economic growth. Conserve diversity of species. Live in small, self reliant communities.
"Touch the earth lightly."
42
What is ecological extension/ eco holism?
All ecosystems and living things on the planet are interdependent. Focus not on the rights of humans, but the interdependence of all the system and sees the environment as a whole entity, intrinsic in itself.
Species/ ecosystem intrinsically valuable.
43
Who suggested the Gaia hypothesis?
James Lovelock, the Earth is a massive self regulating biological organism. Stated looking at the earth form space you see a self regulating living system almost a living being.
Man's idea of superiority flawed.
44
What did he think about earth?
It is alive in itself. Inter connectedness of all matter particularly at the subatomic level, It is wrong to think the earth is inert but alive. Likened relationship fo atmosphere to living beings to the bark of a tree. The bark may be inert, without it the tree can't live, but without the tree no bark, Gaia describes the vital energy of nature.
45
What is the relationship between humans and the earth?
Symbiotic - mutually benefiical relationship dependent on each other.
46
What did he think about earth?
It can't be destroyed. Believed evidence of fossils showed that even with extreme changes of weath in the past life in some form has always survived. Human life may be wiped out, but humans are only 1 part of Gaia can herself survive without our presence. Humans are part of a whole. If we abuse Gaia we risk our own survival. Gaia owes us nothing we are her existence.
47
Do we have thus have a responsibility to the environment?
Yes it is a valuable entity. " For me Gaia is a rleigious as well as scientific concept and in both spheres it is manageable."
48
What are the strengths of this?
It is an ethical 'common ground' between anthropocentrists and biocentrists as their right and wrong becomes quite similar, involve convergence of goals strive for same immediate objective to maintain Gaia's health but different rationale.
Lyn Margulis backed Lovelock, stating Dawkin's perspective as a strong believe in evolution is not incompatible with Gaia if symbiotic ideas are accepted. All organisms will at some point work together with other organisms in a symbiotic relationship to survive whilst meaning individual organisms e..g pilot fish cleans teeth of sharks for protection. Cooperation for mutual survival close to Darwinism.
49
What are the weaknesses of this?
It doesn't work alongside evolution, so is it really a "scientific concept" as Lovelock suggests.
Uses analogous language named after a greek goddess, the earth and a mythical creature shouldn't really be compared. Earth isn't 1 huge conscious whole it is lots of little bits some of which have symbiotic relationships.
Dawkins - evolutionary theory disproves idea everything clubs together, scientific 'survival of fittest' means species that adapt and develop in response to altered conditions will survive.
50
What did Kant think about the environment?
Rejected consequentalist approaches to the environment.
Environment is of instrumental value and human needs are at the centre.
Deontological absolutist approach.
51
What is a summary of Kant's main ideas?
Kant believed all our actions should be undertaken due to duty and not emotion, consequences are not important.
Acting out of duty allows us to have the good will and to seek the ultimate end in the summum bonum, supreme good which can't be achieved in this lifetime.
52
What did he think about nature and the environment?
It works rationally, as it liberates human beings and shows our autonomy.
There was an interrelationship between humans and creations, who work in harmony.
Cruelty to animals is illogical and should be avoided as it is humans not using their right reason e..g. testing products on animals Kant would be firmly against this.
53
How did he see animals?
As existing for humans e..g for food, which could justify actions that destroy the environment if it helps humans such as cutting down the Amazon rainforest means we can have more resources and paper to the benefit of humanity although possibly destroying the habitat of endemic native species.
54
What does he claim in the categorical imperative "ought implies can."
We must not use things as a means to an end. Nature should be exploited, but out primary duty is to ensure we survive. Less sustainability if it provides the resources we need in the future.
Nature has intrinsic beauty, but not of intrinsic worth.
Universability, creating general laws - maxims that can be applied to everyone to ensure respect and equality.
Practically difficult, theoretically of help. Encompasses everyone in the world, general laws everyone supported not using any emotion hard.
55
What are the strengths of this theory?
Deontological nature makes it easier to apply.
Theoretically works as honours respect and dignity.
Clarity.
Consistent, same approach in every situation.
56
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
Inflexible, need to look at individual situations when looking at the environment.
Hard to put into practise, as hard to universalise maxims related to the environment, as issues specific and different in different places e..g 1 place maxim building a hydroelectric dam is for the good of the community ,may work as most sustainable way of gaining power, in other places cause problems like flooding.
Anthropocentric focus human arrogance and exploitation - Naess deep ecology platform, seen as selfish. We can use a fleece for human need, may not have a huge impact on environment singularly, but could justify using things like ivory highly damaging.
57
What approach did Bentham take?
A sentient centred view, animals matter as much as humans as they are sentient creatures.
Naturalism of high importance in Bethamite ethics, pleasure preferred over pain as in nature.
Utilitarian, focuses on maximisation of pleasure ' the greatest good for the greatest number' this extended to animals and humans.
All sentient creatures should be considered equally when discussing environmental matters.
58
What did he famously say about animals?
" The question is not, can they reason? Nor can they talk? But can they suffer?
Quantitative approach, environment that would maximise the welfare benefits for a maximal number of people and sentient creatures. Future, consequences environmental issues will have on all sentient beings in the environment.
59
How do we calculate how much pleasure?
7 criteria of hedonic calculus - purity, remoteness, extent, duration, intensity, certainity, fecundity.
Sentient beings into account = huge effect on environmental decisions - hydro electric dam allowed in a jungle in Borneo if as a result lots of wild, sentient animals were drowned. Not purity of pleasure as causes pain, reduces intensity of pleasure for humans and wouldn't produce fecundity.
60
What are the strengths of this theory?
Looks to the future, decisions have such a large scale impact and to sustain the planet must look at implications on.
Fair approach not for humans, less arrogant and selfish. Not just one species.
Clearly see economic implications as modern utilitarians use cost benefit analysis.
Help future generations of animals and humans.
61
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
Ignores belief humans should never be used as a means to an end.
Hard to predict the future consequences, changes like genetic engineering irreversible once put in place.
Impractical as each event has to be considered separately.
62
What was Mill's theory ?
Disagreed with Act, as equal value to all pleasures, focussed on pleasure alone and treatment of minorities.
Happiness not pleasure, sympathy of others motivated, autonomy of the individual.
Higher pleasures of mind and lower of the body. Good for society not just of the individual - golden rule of Jesus treat others as you would like to be treated.
Principle of universability.
63
What did Mill think about the environment?
Nature is wild and chaotic.
Humans tame nature - Kew gardens without human care turn to marshes along riverside.
Anthropocentric, optimistic as humans would rise above the natural environment.
Mill condemns all ethical and religious systems based on the observation and copying of the natural world.
Jungle in Borneo - hydro electric dam - Mill focus on humans depending on electricity especially from clean methods not fossil fuels.
Qualitative approach - what sort of environment is needed to maximise human welfare.
Animals should be treated with respect as beneficial to us , dog fighting banned as taking part in an act degrades us.
64
What are the strengths of this theory?
Doesn't allow for destroying the environment, sustainable for human benefit.
All human opinions on environment of equal importance.
Individual shouldn't be out ruled by a corrupt majority.
Everyone is considered and opinion treated with respect.
65
What are the weaknesses of the theory?
No timescale for dealing with environmental issues.
Do humans deserve to be considered as above nature?
Could lead to animals being treated terribly if most people are happy.
How could humans rise above the natural environment surely we are part of it and so it should be valued not simply as of instrumental value?
66
What is Singer's approach to the environment?
Agreed and developed Bentham's approach in practical ethics 1993.
Interested in sentience, ability to feel pleasure and pain.
Uses criteria for moral status based on sentience. Humans have the same moral worth as humans as equal preferences as feel pleasure and pain in same way.
Treatment of all animals and humans should be equal if not specieism, humans above animals when have equal preference.
Plants are non sentient, so hard to argue for their intrinsic value.
67
What is his concept of scarcity value?
As unspoilt areas of the world become rarer, they acquire this value. Argues for their preservation for the sake of future generations.
Singer called these areas "world heritage sites", which we have inherited form our ancestors and should leave for our descendants.
E.g. utilitarian calculation, short term benefits of destroying rainforest would not be as worthy as long term benefits of preserving.
68
What should nature not be devalued as?
Of "merely aesthetic value" compares natural environment to cities like Venice. Huge amount sof money spent on preserving them for their historical and aesthetic value as it should be.
Just as future generations deserve the right to appreciate cities like Venice as they have the same right to appreciate natural environments. They deserve equal investment and protection, biocentric approach.
69
What are the strengths of this theory?
Avoids the weaknesses of other Utilitarian approaches that it has allowed people to exploit nature for short term human benefit, preferences of all sentient beings are equal and balance between short and long term consequences.
Despite new technology being developed, appreciation of wilderness is high, groups like, green peace lots of young people protecting it as a reservoir of scientific knowledge and an area of beauty.
Legitimate reasons for holding an environmental ethics without God.
Justifies why we should protect the environment beyond merely the interests of us, protected for us all and future generations.
Disputes exploitation of the environment, looking at full picture.
70
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
Doesn't extend to plants, but preserving animals and areas of scarcity value means still treated with respect as of intrinsic worth.
Some argue we don't know if areas of wilderness will be of any interest to future generations as new technology may persuade them to stay indoors. Therefore should be able to destroy those parts for our human gain now.
71
What is a summary of Natural law?
Deontological, objective and absolute.
Based on Aristotle's teleological philosophy, everything has a telos and fulfilling that is the ultimate good to be sort.
We need to use our God given reason, follow God's purpose, following purpose become perfect.
Eudaimonia - human and societal flourishing is union with God.
Synderesis rule - do good, avoid evil.
Apparent and real goods, interior and exterior act good for real good.
Primary precepts - Preserve the innocent, ordered society, worship God, education of the young and reproduction.
Cardinal - Justice, temperance, prudence and fortitude. Theological - hope, faith and charity.
Doctrine of double effect - Sometimes can't do good without bad consequence, unintended.
72
What is the traditional NL approach to the environment?
Like Aristotle, Aquinas thought animals existed for the benefit of humans.
Primary precepts still applicable, as universal and framework for all peoples and cultures.
Worship God - reverence for creation and values to the environment. We share many of the precepts with other aimless like reproduction and education of the young.
Aquinas would share the view of stewardship, we have a responsibility to ,maintain harmony in the natural world, gives priority to humans.
The natural world has its own telos and potential to flourish, but most value to human life.
73
What are the strengths of this theory?
Opposite of the deep ecology approach, but not total instrumental as the environment has its own telos as God's creation and has value.
Animals are not given the same value as humans, but humans should treat the environment including animals as it is intrinsically good and we are responsible for it.
74
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
Donnelly and Bishop - criticised anthropocentric nature of it.
Very regimented, primary precepts for all cultures, but all facer different environmental issues - colder climates ice caps melting, here flooding.
Selfish to give humans precidence, which could lead to exploitation - Naess and deep ecology platform against + Aldo Leopold 'sand country alamac' criticised as shallow ecology approach.
75
What modern NL approaches?
Lossky - humans 1 part of the earth like heart 1 part of the body. Ecocentric approach.
Murphy - practical method of using reason to calculate moral action. Adapted Finnis' list of basic goods needed to create eudamonia: life, knowledge, aesthetic experience, excellence at work and play. freedom, inner peace, friendship and community. Practical rationality.
Scott Davidson - applied this list to environmental ethics e..g open cast mining not aesthetic. Way we treat environment key for eduaimonia.
Theokritoff - Orthodox Christian, develops idea in Aristotle that creations work harmoniously. Sees in nature bond of unity between creator and creation.
76
What are Neo Kantian approaches to the environment?
Ronald Hepburn - 'act so as to treat humanity never only as a means but always also as an end" links to proper response to the natural environment. We should approach environment with a response of 'wonder; so we should not exploit the natural environment for the needs of humans.
Kant held an awe for the natural world and so wouldn't view it as being exploited to serve humans.
Paul Taylor - idea of respect to every living organism sentient or non sentient. The concept of inherent worth mean nature has value in and of itself whether or not it provides for humans.
Korsgard humans are rational agents and also animals with animal natures.
"our love of eating and drinking and sex and playing..."
We should include animals, Kant we should protect animals in same we protect babies who aren't yet rational beings. Humans 98% of same DNA as chimps and tree park half of its genetic material with humans, so Kant's second cat imperative covers the interests of all sentient beings.
77
What are the problems with these?
Could be deviating from what Kant truly thought. Not certain he would have viewed the environment as anything but of instrumental value.
You can universalise care for the environment but logically possible the opposite too.
If kingdom of ends is to be achieved, treating all people with respect couldn't be achieved the environment wasn't protected as people live in the environment.
78
What is the virtue ethics approach to the environment?
A follow of virtue ethics would consider how an environmentally virtuous person would act and what sort of virtues they should develop.
These virtues like sustainability should be developed to help the development of the polis or community.
There is no one way to develop these environmental virtues as character traits most helpful for being a successful environmental activist, not same as environmental scientist. Both have a respect and love for nature, environmental scientists needs to be far sighted.
When considering the whole environment as a community, virtue ethics would say we should care for animals to encourage eudaimonia and community to flourish.
79
What does MacIntyre think?
If compassion is an appropriate virtue to have towards a suffering human being, there is no relevant moral difference between human suffering and the suffering of a non human animals, one should extend compassion to non human animals who suffer, We should follow virtuous role models.
80
What do Virtue ethicists look for?
Examples of virtue to follow - e.g. Aldo Leopold, deep ecology approach possibly Naess and sessions deep ecology platform as the ideal.
Shifts emphasis form duty and consequences to who we are and how we to live in the natural world, Doesn't ask why environmental preservation is important for humanity, but the characterises of an environmentally good person, extremes of behaviour unhelpful for society and the environment.
Examine human relationships within the natural world more objectively.
81
What are the strengths of this theory?
Takes a step back form anthropocentrism looking at the natural world as an objective whole.
Appreciates the complexity of the world as a whole.
Looking at virtuous examples can lead us to a fair approach to the environment, treating it with the respect it deserves, more intrinsic theory.
82
What are the weaknesses of this theory?
It is not always easy to know which virtues are the best to cultivate for a particular situation and for particular environmental issues.
Some role models like Naess seem too extreme, demands the golden mean.
Difficult to apply in practise e.g. climate change is a worldwide issue but building new road through beauty spot is a local one, doesn't really help us decide between natural beauty, employment and better transport links.
Appealing to the character traits of virtuous people can't be decisive as we have to apply cultural relativity to indentify these people as virtuous.
