Equine Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
List the main equine disciplines.
A
Dressage Show jumping Eventing Racing Polo Endurance Driving Showing Vaulting Western riding Pleasure horses
2
Q
Describe the basics of field management.
A
- Water is continually available
- Some fields may need to be rested, as horses patchily graze in order to eat separately from where they defecate
- Droppings should be picked up to prevent spread of disease
- Natural shelter from trees and hedges and man-made shelter for shelter from bad weather and flies.
- Posts, rails and hedge fencing are ideal but not wire netting, barbed wire or ditches, as horses can injure themselves or get stuck. Electric fences often subdivide fields for grazing but they are expensive.
- Try to prevent injury from fencing or bites and kicks from other horses.
3
Q
Describe the basics of stable management.
A
- Fed a combination of forage and concentrate.
- Fed from floor to encourage mucus to drain from the respiratory tract, so pollen and dust are left at floor level while chewing.
- Haynets must have air outflow but not air inflow.
- Stables mucked out to remove droppings, urine and wet bedding.
- Stables skipped out by removing droppings.
- Stables can be littered but they wet bedding is left to leave a deep base layer.
4
Q
What are stereotypies?
A
Stylised, repetitive and apparently functionless motions and actions, oral and locomotor. 5-10% prevalence. Diet, stress and opportunities for social contact can affect stereotypy devellopment.
Crib biting - biting doors and windows
Wind sucking - gulping air
Weaving - rocking left to right (antiweaves to discourage this)
Box walking - horse walks around the stable
5
Q
How can management cause equine respiratory diseases?
A
- Dust and fungal spores from hay, bedding and poor ventilation is irritant to the respiratory system.
- Ammonia is a direct irritant to mucous membranes, skin and respiratory tract, and inhibits airway defence for clearing particles from the lungs.
- Equine asthama is pulmonary hypersensitivity to inhaled antigens. Can be managed by pasture shelter against adverse weather conditions, no supplementary hay, soaking/steaming hay, switching to haylage or dust-free beddings, such as rubber mattings, dust extracted shavings and shredded paper.
6
Q
How can management cause equine abdominal diseases?
A
Colic - abdominal discomfort caused by sudden changes in feeding or management. Impact reduced by increasing water intake when changes occur. Feeding more than 2kg of concentrate per meal can increase the risk of large intestinal displacement colic.
Gastric ulceration - particular to horses with high intensity exercise. Feed little and often, reduce exercise, pasture turn out, increase forage and decrease concentrate.
7
Q
How can management cause equine disease in the limbs?
A
Laminitis - inflammation of hoof laminae. Linked to overgrazing and high fructan levels in grass, so restrict grazing. (More common in ponies.)
Myopathies - tying up affects muscles of hind limbs, developing stiff gaits and refusal to move. Due to underlying predisposition. Sporadic form is associated with overtraining/exertion. Seen when some horses are laid off for a few days without concomitant reduction in feeding.
8
Q
How can management cause general equine diseases?
A
Injury and trauma - good maintenance of stable and fencing and removing any sharp objects frim stable should reduce this.
Obesity - multifactoral but overfeeding and lack of exercise are the main factors. Can be insulin resistance, which would lead to laminitis and metabolic syndrome.
Skin conditions - rain scald from wet weather lead to warm, crusty lesions on the back. Mud fever causes sores and scabs on pastern and lower limbs particular to non-pigmented skin.
9
Q
List the common diseases routinely vaccinated for in horses.
A
Tetanus
Equine influenza
Equine herpes virus
(Strangles, but not routine)
10
Q
List the vaccination schedules for tetanus, equine influenza and equine herpes virus.
A
Tetanus: 1st after 6 months old, 2nd 4 weeks later, booster a year later and then boosters every 2 years. For pregnant mares, booster 4-6 weeks before foaling.
EI: 1st on day 0, 2nd on day 21-92, 3rd on day 150-215, annual booster/6 monthly booster for competing horses.
EHV: vaccines for EHV 1 and 4 only. 1st on day 0, 2nd 4-6 weeks after, boosters at 5, 7 and 9 months of gestation in pregnancy.
11
Q
Describe the indications, vaccination risks and benefits of tetanus (clostridium tanani.
A
Bacteria enter through a deep wound and has an endotoxin causing spastic paralysis and muscles that are unable to relax.
Few risks of vaccination.
Vaccination is very effective.
12
Q
Describe the indications and risks of vaccination of equine influenza.
A
Very contagious viral disease of the upper respiratory tract, with high morbidity and low morality. Can result in severe complications.
Risk of antigenic drift and antigenic shift.
13
Q
Describe the indications and vaccination risks and benefits of equine herpes virus.
A
3 forms: respiratory, reproductive and neurologic.
Respiratory - problem in performance stables.
Reproductive - causes abortion storms. Vaccination reduces storms but not for individual mares.
Neurologic - causes ataxia, inability to urinate, recumbency and permanent ataxia.
Vaccinated horses have severe signs of neurologic form, so never vaccinate this form, only respiratory and reproductive.
14
Q
Describe the indications, vaccination risks and benefits of strangles.
A
Highly contagious bacterial infection of the upper respiratory tract. Fever, pus and abscessation of lymph nodes.
Need muscosal immunity so submucosal injection into lip. Not routinely given so advise biosecurity for new arrivals instead.
15
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with cyathostomes - small redworms?
A
Can encyst in large intestinal mucosa for 2-3 years. larval cyathostomosis is a mass emergence of hyperbiosed larvae, causing a massive inflammatory reaction with severe diarrhoea that is often fatal.
Eggs hatch into larvae on pasture > larvae invade large intestine wall > adult worms in large intestine > eggs passed in faeces
16
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with strongles - large redworms?
A
Larvae migrate from GI tract to cranial mesenteric artery and back again, causing blocking in arteries, causing ischaemic areas in large intestine, which can be fatal.
Eggs hatch in pasture > moult through L1 and L2 > L3 larvae ingested from pasture > L4 larvae migrate into arteries supplying intestine > L5 migrate to gut > adults in large intestine
17
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with strongyloids westeri?
A
Infects foal through through dam’s milk or via skin penetration. Induces diarrhoea 6 months after.
L3 ingested/penetrates > L4 via lung and trachea, then swallowed > adult females in the small intestine > lay unfertilised eggs > L1 > egg > adult > L5 > L4 > L3
18
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with ascarids?
A
6 months - 2 years old greatest risk. Small intestinal obstructions, leading to surgical colic.
Eggs passed in faeces to pasture > moult in L1 and L2 > L2 ingested > migrate through intestinal wall to liver and moult to L3 > migrate to lung and enter bronchi > coughed up, then swallowed > moult to L4 > adults in small intestine
19
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with dictyocaulus arnfield - lung worm?
A
Severe anal pruritis/itching.
Life cycle not completed in horse, as adults do not maintain sexual maturity here. Female worms migrate GI tract and deposit eggs around anus, cemented to the skin with a thick, sticky substance.
20
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with tapeworm?
A
Incidence of spasmodic colic increases with burden. Can cause intussusception/ileo-caecal and caeco-caecal and thickened small intestine wall at ileo-caecal junction.
Egg passed in faeces to pasture > egg ingested by oribatid mite > develops on cysticercoid in mite > mite ingested in grazing > adults in small intestine and caecum
21
Q
What is the life cycle and health conditions associated with gasterophilus - bot fly?
A
Not proven to cause any problem.
Adult lays eggs on horse > eggs ingested upon grooming > L1 and L2 moults in tongue and gums > L3 moult in stomach before passed in faeces > pupa in soil, then hatches
22
Q
Describe basic parasite control.
A
- Targeted worming - only for those that need it
- Weekly poo-picking in fields
- Not overgrazing
- Rotating other livestock
- Consider needs of adults, foals and pregnant mares
- Certain parasites at different times of the year
- Have planned procedure for when a new horse arrives
23
Q
Why do horses require routine dentistry?
A
Teeth are continually erupting and being worn down, meaning sharp points can develop if not worn down correctly.
- Maxillary teeth can develop sharp edges on buccal side
- Mandibular teeth on lingual side
- Hooks and overgrowths on areas without an opposite tooth
- Ulceration
- Pain
- Difficulties eating
24
Q
How is routine dentistry carried out?
A
- Recommended to sedate horses and always use a mouth gag
- Flush out mouth to remove any food materials
- Use head light and mirror
- Headstand for comfort pf horse’s head if sedated
- Sharp edges rasped to prevent pain or ulceration using hand or power rasp, being careful not to take too much
- Annual checkups or 6 monthly if geriatic
25
Identify the basic anatomy of the equine digit.
3rd metacarpal with 2nd and 4th splint bones on either side. This articulates with P1/proximal phalanx/long pastern bone. This articulates with P2/middle phalanx/short pastern bone. This articulates with P3/pedal bone.
26
Which features of the hoof reduce concussion in the limb?
```
Digital cushion between P3 and sole
Bulbar cushion in heel bulbs
P3 suspended in hoof
Hoof capsule is elastic
Tendons further up the limb store energy for elastic recoil
```
27
What features are assessed in static examination of the equine foot?
Hoof quality - cracks, fissures, wall loss, if solar surface is waxy or flaky that might require shoeing, any deterioration in coronary band.
Hoof balance - symmetrical walls, parallel sole and coronary band to floor and to each other, perpendicular sole and coronary band to limb axis in dorsal view.
```
Shod or not
Limb conformation
Digital pulses
Hoof testers may be used
Are they a pair?
```
28
What features are assessed in dynamic examination?
Walk or trot on hard, flat surface. Evaluate:
- Foot balance and landing - normal feet or heels first, medial and lateral land synchronously
- Placement of foot relative to limb
29
What are the indications for shoeing a horse?
- If horse needs additional protection, support, traction or gait alteration
- If hoof growth is 3-4 months at the back where it is shorter and 12 months at the toe
- When rate of attrition is greater than the rate of growth
- If horn quality is poor
- If balance or conformation is poor
30
Describe the basics of hoof care.
- Pick out hoof daily with hoof pick to remove all packed dirt, faeces and bedding from frog clefts, central sulcus, bars and solar surface.
- Routine trimming or shoeing every 6-8 weeks
- Emergency visits for acutely lame horse or to replace shoe
- Only quality horn, good conformation. good hoof growth and with growth rate being greater than attrition rate can be unshod.
31
Describe the purposes of basic farriery tools.
Buffer - lift clenches
Pullers - elevate shoe heel first
Nail puller - pull nails
Hood knives - paring to remove dead, flaky horn, sole, frog and bars
Nippers - pull nail heads down and manage flares
Rasp - level foot and create a bed
32
Describe some different shoes and boots and when they would be used.
Poultice boots - short term for turn out and to keep poultice on.
Riding and turnout boots - both have minimum daily resets and must be good fits to avoid rubbing.
33
List the costs associated with vaccinations and worming.
Tetanus = £10-20
Equine influenza = £30
Worming count = £10
De-wormer = £10-25
Endoparaite tests = £20
34
List the costs associated with dentistry and farriery.
Dentistry exam = £40-60 depending on if sedation included.
```
Trim = £20-40
Front shoes = £40-60
Full set = £65-100
Refits = £5
Therapeutic shoes = £100 each
```
Emergency vet visit for foot abscess = £175 including consumables.
35
What is the purpose of a stable bandage?
- Lower limb protection when travelling or being stabled
- Provision of warmth and dryness to leg
- Support limb when it is taking more weight than usual (if horse is lame on the other leg)
- Prevention or reduction of swelling (such as oedema)
36
Describe how to apply a stable bandage.
1. Large gamgee from coronary band to the carpus.
2. Begin bandaging just beneath the carpus, wrapping so that the top overlapping layer is on the outside with the overlapping flap facing left , with 50% overlay. Bandage in the same direction as the gamgee, anticlockwise, starting from the front.
3. Bandage to beneath the fetlock joint.
4. Bandage back up limb, finishing mid cannon or just below carpus.
5. Finish with Velcro at the end of the bandage. Should be over the lateral aspect of the limb, not over tendons.
6. Change every 12 hours and check for heat, swelling or discomfort.
37
How is an exercise bandage applied?
1. Small gamgee from top of carpus to fetlock. If there is gamgee overlap, place this over tendons for extra protection.
2. Wrap around anticlockwise with 50% overlay, starting from the front. Elastic band is stretchier so ensure wrap is not too tight.
3. Seal by putting Velcro through metal ring and sealing it back.
38
Name and describe the types of padding that can be used in bandaging.
Fibregee - synthetic gamgee, similar to thick felt, cut to size and washable.
Cotton wool - versatile, inexpensive but not washable.
Gamgee - cotton wool with a muslin cover, cut to size and not washable.
39
What are the risks and indicators of excess tension in a bandage?
Swelling above or below the bandage
Discomfort shown by biting at dressing or lifting the limb
Skin is sore to touch after bandage is removed
Redness or even serum oozing if excess tension is used long term
40
When can you approach a horse by its body language?
Relaxed posture, resting one hind leg, ears up and forward, open eyes and showing no white, muzzle relaxed with nostrils and mouth closed.
41
How do you safely approach a horse?
- Do not enter stable if horse is facing away from you
- Only enter after observing body language to see if horse is happy for you to approach
- Announce yourself as to not startle the horse and always approach on the left of the horse
- Pat the horse and verbally assure the horse, being careful to not make any sudden movements or loud noises
42
Describe restraining a horse with a headcollar and lead rope.
1. Put hand around the head and over the bridge of the nose, you have restraint.
2. Catch horse by putting lead rope around its neck so free end is on the left too.
3. Place nose in the head collar and pull it up.
4. Pull ears through headpiece and fasten headcollar around the head.
5. Make sure cheek pieces are on either side of the face and that the nose band is over the nose.
43
What is a tiffany?
Used if additional restraint is required. Put a finger into the bar of the mouth between the incisors and molar, then slide tiffany in and attach the 2 pieces. Cab be used to hold in still position or for trotting but never for tying up.
44
Describe how to tie a quick release knot in tying up.
Never to metal bars but to a breakable bit of string, as horses are flight animals and may want to run away if scared.
1. Thread lead rope through loop.
2. with free end, create a loop that goes over both the free end and the end attached to the horse.
3. Wrap free end around the end attached to the horse.
4. Create a 2nd loop and pull this through the 1st.
5. Move knot upwards to tighten.
45
Describe how to apply a bridle.
1. Orientate bridle first
2. Take off headcollar and either leave horse tied up or restrained.
3. Ensure the nose band goes over the nose and slide the bit in the horse's mouth.
4. Pass headpiece over the head and tuck ears between headpiece and browband.
5. Nose band must be tucked under cheek pieces.
6. Fasten under chin so that 2 fingers fit under easily.
7. Throat band done up so that 4 fingers can fit under.
8. Flash noseband done up rostral to nose band and is done tighter than others so horse does not open mouth.
9. Pull reigns back over head for control.
10. Pull pieces of forelock through from browband and check everything is symmetrical.
46
Describe how to pick up a forelimb.
1. Horse is appropriately restrained.
2. Face caudally and run hand over shoulder and down caudal aspect of leg.
3. Continue down leg with hand cupped around palmar aspect/over tendons.
4. Catch hoof and lean into the horse to shift weight on to the other limb.
47
Describe how to pick up a hindlimb.
1. Horse is appropriately restrained.
2. Stand side on to the horse, facing caudally.
3. Run hand over quadriceps and down cranial aspect of the leg with hand over dorsal aspect of cannon bone.
4. Catch hoof and lean into the horse to shift weight to other limb.
48
Describe how to pick out a hoof.
1. Hold dorsal aspect of hoof in hand closest to horse.
2. Hold pick in the palm of your hand with the hook closest to little finger.
3. Pick from heel to toe and remove dirt and faeces from sole and clefts. Never apply too much pressure or take too much off, being particularly gentle and picking the soft frog.
49
Describe how to replace a hoof to the ground.
Gently lower foot until toe is close to or touching the ground and let go.
50
Describe how to fold a rug for rugging.
1. Select a stable rug and fold in half so that the outer surface of the rug is on the outside.
2. Orientate the rug so that cranial end is left and caudal end is right.
3. Lie out rug and tie surcingles together to prevent them hitting or spooking the horse in rugging.
4. Pick up rug along midline.
5. Pass tail end to meet end so rug is quartered.
6. Still holding both ends, pass right hand under left so rug lays across right forearm.
7. Midline of rug lays across right forearm. Quarter of rug facing outwards should be on the inside left shoulder portion of the rug.
51
Describe how to apply folded rug in rugging.
1. Horse is restrained appropriately.
2. Gently place quarter of rug that corresponds to left should against horse.
3. Gently and quietly pass quarter over horse's withers is that the front half is now unfolded.
4. Fasten breast straps under the neck and unfold the bottom half.
5. Walk in front of the horse to the right side and untie the surcingles so that they hang loosely.
6. Return to the left side and fasten the right cranial clasp to the left caudal clasp and the right caudal clasp to the left cranial clasp.
7. Fasten without twisted straps and by standing next to flank of horse, with it being aware of your presence. Insert end of strap vertically into clip and rotate 90 degrees so it is horizontal and secured in clip.
8. Pull tail through fillet string by standing at the left flank.
52
Describe how to remove a rug.
1. Under all straps, starting with fillet string (and leg straps if necessary).
2. Undo surcingles and breast straps, with horse aware of your presence and standing at left flank.
3. Gently lift front of rug up and fold backwards.
4. Stand at left flank and reach under rug and gently remove rug over the bottom, not making any sudden movements.
53
Describe how to a lead a horse for a walk and trot.
1. Stand on left and hold lead rope with fingers closest to headcollar at 6-8 inches and hold free rope with right hand in a loop (not with hand wrapped around).
2. Walk purposefully and look where you're going and not at the horse.
3. Do not walk on the inside of the turn, as you increase risk of being trodden on.
4. To initiate turn, cross hand under the neck, causing head and path to turn.
5. To trot, double the amount of lead rope given to the horse and give verbal encouragement. Jog and horse will follow.
54
Identify intramuscular injection sites.
Gluteals
Neck muscles
Pectorals
Needle inserted at 90 degrees to skin surface.
55
Identify the subcutaneous injection sites.
Neck (and sometimes over the shoulder)
Needle at 45 degrees to skin surface with a skin tent.
56
Identify the intravenous injection sites.
Jugular groove
57
Describe how a horse's respiration rate is measured and what is the normal rate?
Counting number of breaths over 15 seconds and multiplying by 4 to get breaths per minute.
Normal = 12-20
58
What are the 3 palpation sites in this practical?
Transfacial - vessel runs in orientation of facial crest and temporomandibular joint.
Facial - under jaw and crosses a groove in the mandible. Palpate by pushing up into the base of jaw or push on the medial aspect and pull laterally.
Digital - palpated at level of fetlock, following groove between suspensory ligament and deep digital flexor tendon to the widest part of the fetlock. Should only be to palpate if lame.
59
Describe mare oestrous cycles.
- Mares are seasonally polyoestrous – repeatedly cycle throughout a breeding season
- Mares cycle from spring – autumn naturally
- Long day breeders
- Each oestrous cycle is 21 days
60
Describe the cycle of a mare in the 4 seasons.
Winter:
- Anoestrus
- Low GnRH, LH and FSH
Spring:
- Transitional period
- GnRH released at higher frequency and LH mirror this
- FSH increases
- LH remains low until near first ovulation
Summer:
- 21 day cycles
Autumn:
- Erratic cycles
- Less GnRH
- Less hormone production from developing follicles and corpus luteums
- Potential for failure to ovulate as poor LH surge
61
What are the oestrous behaviours in mares?
* Lifts tail
* Winking of vulva
* Squirts urine
* Wide legged stance
* Acceptance of male presence
* Does not kick out at stallion
* Tolerates his attention
62
What are the oestrous behaviours in the stallion?
* Phlemen posture
* Sniffs, nuzzles then bites hindlimbs and perineum
* Drops penis
* Peile erection
* If permitted will cover the mare
63
What pre-breeding test are done before the stud is introduced?
```
Strangles ELISA
FWEC
Clitoral swab for:
- Taylorella equigenatalis, a notifiable contagious equine metritis
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Klebsiella
```
64
How is oestrous induced?
Mares may be given an injection of prostaglandin shortly before or after arrival at stud. This means they arrive and are soon in oestrous, so wasting costs of livery and providing a horse which is ready to start breeding straight away. PGF2 alpha causes regression of the corpus luteum and induces oestrous behaviour within 2-7 days.
65
What reproductive tests are done at stud?
Ultrasound scan of ovaries – presence of corpus luteum shows cyclicity, follicular development
Ultrasound scan of uterus – free fluid, cysts, oedema
Endometrial swabs – cytology, culture and sensitivity
66
What is involved in the post-covering assessment?
- Removal of free fluid associated with semen, extender, inflammatory reaction. Done by lavage sterile isotonic fluid to induce uterine contraction and encourage movement.
- Takes 5 days to achieve an ideal environment before fertilised ovum arrives.
- Caslicks procedure
- Monitor with ultrasound
67
How is pregnancy diagnosed?
- Ultrasound scan from day 12, generally 14-16 days. It is important to identify twins, indicated by 2 corpus luteums. Ultrasound used later to confirm a heartbeat and foetal sexing.
- Failure to return to oestrous at 21 days
- Blood sample shows PMSG from 60 days and oestrogens from 100 days
- Urine sample shows placental oestrogens from 120 days
68
What happens to twin pregnancies in horses?
- Usually not identical but double ovulations
- Rarely survive to full tern
- Aborted between 5-7 months when demands exceed placental surface area capacity to provide required nutreints and oxygen.
- Identify on ultrasound scan before 35 days will terminate one or both using “pinching” and prostaglandin.
69
How can semen be collected with a dummy?
- Train with help of pheromones
- Stand mare in season nearby/in front
- Soak towel in urine from mare in season to encourage
- A good first experience is vital
70
How is semen collected using an artificial vagina?
- Integral or separate from dummy
- Well insulated with robust outer shell from plastic or leather
- Filled with warm water at 38˚C, lined and lubricated
71
What should be done with semen after collection?
- Filter gel fraction of the ejaculate from semen
- Do not get water in semen
- Keep semen in warm and dark
- Do not allow semen to contact rubber
- After collection the semen should be extended before chilling or freezing
72
Describe artificial insemination.
Timing of inseminations usually based upon ultrasound scans when:
- Large follicle present on ovary
- Cervix open and engorged
- Low uterine oedema
- Little/no free fluid in uterus
Fixed time insemination can be used following induction of ovulation.
73
Describe the process of embryo transfer.
- Increasing use in competition mares
- Donor mare is covered
- Embryo collected at 7-10 days
- Implanted into recipients
- Maintain a group of mares
- Usually 1-4 days behind the cycle of the donor
74
What are the signs of imminent foaling?
Udder development – “waxing up”, dripping milk and can monitor milk electrolytes as calcium increases
Mare vulva relaxes
Foaling alarms – conductance and positional
75
Describe stage 1 of equine labour.
Duration: 1-4 hours
1. Foal enters pelvic canal stimulating dilation of cervix and vulva.
2. Uterine contractions of increasing strength from tip to cervix.
3. Mare behaviour: restlessness, getting up and down, looking at abdomen, sweating and frequent urination.
4. Now is the time to wash perineum, bandage tail and reverse Caslicks (if not already done).
76
Describe stage 2 of equine labour.
1. Starts when allantois ruptures at cervical star releasing fluids
2. Strong contractions from uterus and voluntary abdominal contractions
3. Amnion then visible with foal inside
4. Foal presents 2 toes and nose followed by shoulders and body of the foal expelled
5. Hindlimbs retained in uterus and mare rests – time for blood to return from placenta to foal
6. When mare stands umbilicus breaks
77
Describe stage 3 of equine labour.
1. Uterine contractions from tip to cervix
| 2. Inverts placenta and expels it and lochia (fluids)
78
When is equine labour considered an emergency?
Stage 2: If water break and no amnion/foal visible in 5 minutes or if no strong visible contractions in 10 minutes, this is an emergency and the vet should be called immediately.
Stage 3: If more than 3 hours, the foetal membranes are retained. Seek urgent veterinary advice as this is a genuine veterinary emergency and call the vet now.
79
What is the post-partum 1-2-3 rule?
By 1 hour = foal should be standing
By 2 hours = foal should have sucked
By 3 hours = placenta should be passed
80
What is neonatal adjustment?
Respiratory system:
- First 30 seconds breaths are gasps as lungs inflate
- Rhythmical breaths at 60-70bpm by 1 minute
- 30-40bpm by 4 hours
Heart rate:
- 40-80 bpm at birth
- 80-100 bpm at rest by 4 hours
- With peak 150 bpm when active
Murmur persist until ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale close
81
What are neonatal reflexes?
Standing: reflex present a few minutes after birth, usually within 30 minutes. Initially wobbly, wide based stance for stability and encouraged by dam.
Suckling: reflex present at birth, drawn to mares udder due to light and pheromones.
82
Describe the equine placenta and name the 6 layers.
* Chorionic capillary endothelium
* Chorionic connective tissue
* Chorionic epithelium
* Endometrial epithelium
* Uterine connective tissue
* Uterine capillary endothelium
Non-deciduate – foetal and maternal layers separate
Diffuse – villi spread over virtually all the placenta
83
What does an equine passport application form contain?
```
Owner details
Microchip scanned, placed and location
ID certificate – not compulsory but advisable if microchipped
Owner and competent authority (vet) signature
Vet stamp
Age
Breed
Sex
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84
Describe microchip placement in horses.
- Placed into nuchal ligament
- Scan neck to ensure not present
- Scan chip to ensure functional
- Insert into nuchal ligament
- Scan neck to ensure it is in situ
85
Describe grey equine colour.
Skin dark, mix of black and white hairs, including:
- Light
- Flea bitten
- Steel
- Dappled
86
Describe brown equine colour.
No change in colour definition from upper to lower limbs.
| Colour from tan to virtually black.
87
Describe black equine colour.
Entire body black, white points allowed, white on hoof allowed when white on limb.
88
Describe palmino equine colour.
Golden coat coloyr in various shades from light to dark.
| Flaxen (white/cream) mane/tail
89
Describe chestnut equine colour.
Red/yellow brown.
Mane and tail colour is the same with varying shades, including:
- Chestnut
- Liver chestnut
- Grey adult
- Flaxen mane
90
Describe bay equine colour.
Skin colour as brown. Black points to extremities.
- Dark
- Bright
- Dappled
- Black points
91
Describe cream equine colour.
Body, mane and tail unpigmented.
Iris lacks pigment giving pink/blue tint.
92
Describe dun equine colour.
Dark skin with yellow/brown body colour. Black mare and tail. May have dorsal stripe.
- Yellow
- Chocolate
- Black points
- Blue with dorsal stripe
93
Describe piebald equine colour.
Mixture of black and white patches on body, mare and tail. Borders usually clearly demarcated.
94
Describe tricolour equine colour.
Mixture of patches of 3 shades.
| Black, white, plus any other
95
Describe appaloosa equine colour.
Mosaic of spots with or without raon.
| Example: leopard spot and blanket spot
96
Describe skewbald equine colour.
Patches of white and a colour other than black.
Borders usually clearly demarcated.
- Lemon and white
- Blue and white
- Brown and white
- Chestnut and white
97
Describe roan equine colour.
Mix of solid coat colour and white.
- Strawberry
- Bay
- Blue
98
Name 5 other coat variations.
* Ticked – sparse white hairs in coat
* Flecked – collection of hairs of varying colour are irregularly distributed in coat
* Black marks – small areas of black hairs among other colour
* Spots – approximately circular areas of differing colour to base coat
* Patch – large well defined area of colour other than base coat
99
What are whorls?
Divergent or convergent patches of hair found anywhere on the body but mostly on the head, neck, chest, belly, or just in front of the stifles.
* Whorls are formed by changes in direction of hair coat – may be focal point or linear
* Present from birth and do not change
* Visible in both summer and winter coats
* Reference to anatomical points, such as, eye level, midline, poll, crest, pectoral, abdominal, stifle, laryngeal etc.
100
Describe simple whorls.
Focal point from which hairs diverge.
| Flat and not prominent from coat
101
Describe linear whorls.
2 opposing sweeps of hair meeting from diametrically opposite directions.
Converge along a line which is not prominent.
102
Describe feathered whorls.
2 opposing sweeps of hair diverging or converging from any angle other than 90 degrees.
Diverge along a line which forms a feathered pattern.
103
Describe tufted whorls.
Focal convergence of hairs.
| Hairs form a prominent tuft.
104
Describe crested whorls.
2 opposing sweeps of hair meeting from diametrically opposite directions.
Converge along a line which rises up to form a crest.
105
Describe sinuous whorl.
As feathered on an irregular or curved line.
106
What are white markings?
Present at birth and are unique to each horse, making them useful in identifying individual animals.
- Markings usually have pink skin underneath them, though some faint markings may not and white hairs extend past the area of underlying skin.
- Though markings that overlie dark skin may appear to change, the underlying skin colour and hair growing from pink skin will not.
107
Name 4 examples of white markings.
* White – clearly defined and should be drawn on an iD certificate as an area outlined and hatched in red.
* Mixed – white and coat colour in varying quantity, and should be drawn on an ID certificate as red dashes to signify white hairs.
* Bordered – centre white with mixed area circumscribing, which should be drawn on an ID certificate as a central hatched area with a second outline demonstrating the limit of the bordering.
* Flesh mark – non-pigmented area, which should be drawn on an ID certificate as an area coloured in solid red.
108
Describe star white markings.
White on forehead, can be small or large
| Can be round, elliptical, teardrop, diamond, irregular, etc.
109
Describe blaze white markings.
Wide white marking covering forehead, wider than nasal bones.
can be joined to star.
110
Describe a slip white marking.
Isolated white marking in region of nostrils, varying in position, size and shape.
111
Describe a stripe white marking.
White line running down face not wider than nasal bones. Can be joined to a star.
112
Describe white face white markings.
White covers forehead and front of face, including laterally towards mouth.
Can be uni or bi lateral, frequent in coloureds.
113
What is a dorsal spine?
Black pigmented line running along the spine.
114
What are prophets thumb marks?
Depressions in muscle
115
What is a wall eye?
Non-pigemented eye has pink/white or blue/white iris
116
Name 6 pieces of equipment in a standard grooming kit.
* When muddy use a rubber covered comb in a circular action over the entire body of the horse. Useful for lifting up mud and hair. Smooth strokes to remove hair you have just loosened.
* Soft body brush used to groom the horse’s hair and face. Metal currycomb used to clean the body brush. Use body brush in smooth strokes along the direction of the hair fibres. Useful to get dust and dirt out of the coat.
* Dandy brush for very long hairy coats or very muddy coats. Only used on shorthairs on the limbs. Same direction as the hair fibres.
* Mane comb to groom the mane. Conventionally groomed to the right.
* Plastic coat comb useful on dirty heavy coats when horses are shedding their coats. Useful for finer skinned horses and for getting out the dirt.
* Sweat scraper after exercise in the direction of the coat, soft side onto horse, plastic side away from them.
117
How is a saddle applied?
- Has stirrups, leathers and irons
- Has a girth that is attached to on the right side under the saddle flap, with this piece ready to protect it so that the buckles do not rub
- Has 3 buckles just in case 1 breaks out on the ride, so either use front 2 or back 2
- Adjustable knee holds
- Stirrup folded up when saddling up
- Lift whole thing above and slide front to back
- Position so there is no pressure on the withers underneath it
- Gently slides the girth down
118
What equipment should be used for lunging a horse?
Handler should have riding hat, riding gloves, steel capped boots, boiler suit, and lunge whip.
A horse can be lunged safely using a headcollar alone, a lunging cavesson or a bridle. You should also consider using brushing or tendon and overreach boots to protect the lower limbs.
119
How is a cavesson fitted?
- Should be snug on the horses face otherwise it is prone to slip.
- The noseband should fit with one finger width between the cavesson and the facial crest and two fingers should be able to be inserted between the noseband and the horse’s nose.
- When the horse is not actively being lunged it can be left looser.
- The browband may be fitted or left off.
- The lunge line is attached to the centre ring or the one on the inside ring.
- A lunge line is a flat long rope, it may have intermittent grips or “stops” and may have a buckle with a loop or a swivel clip to attach it to the cavesson.
- Hold all the line off the floor and never wrap it around your hands.
120
What are 3 benefits of lunging?
1. nLunging is a great way to let a horse safely burn off excess energy.
2. It’s regarded as the ideal basis of training young horses because it develops strength, listening and respect.
3. Even for older horses, lunging is helpful in developing balance, rhythm and to improve a horse's paces.
121
Describe the process of lunging a horse.
1. Enter the arena: Lead your horse into the ring or arena and walk to the centre of the circle you want your horse to work on.
2. Hold the Lunge Line and Whip: If your horse will be working on the left rein, hold the lunge line in your left hand and your lunge whip in your right. When your horse is working on the right rein, do the opposite.
3. Create a triangle - Hold the line and the whip so that they create the sides of a triangle. This means you are the apex whilst your horse will be the base. Both of your arms should be bent at the elbow, and you should be standing relaxed.
4. Make the horse walk forwards: Ask your horse to "walk on." It's important to help your horse understand your voice aids by using the same tone and inflection for each cue. Most people use a low drawn-out "whooooaaaaa" for halt and sharp energetic words for walk, trot, and canter.
5. Maintain the circle: As your horse moves off on the circle, you will be holding the lunge line up - not dragging on the ground. Keep elbows bent and the whip pointed at the horse's hocks. Remember to maintain the triangle.
6. Upward transitions: use your voice for upward transitions. This can be reinforced by the position or use of the whip. For some horses it will only take a small wave of the whip from behind, others may need the lash to be cracked. This is done by flicking the whip sharply.
7. Downward transitions: try lowering the tip of the whip to the ground and saying "whooooaaaaa".
122
What are the footfalls in walk?
1. Right hind
2. Right front
3. Left hind
4. Left front
123
What are the footfalls in trot/jog?
1. Left front and right hind
| 2. Right front and left hind
124
What are the footfalls in canter?
Left lead canter:
1. Right hind
2. Right front and left hind
3. Left front
Right lead canter:
1. Left hind
2. Left front and right hind
3. Right front
125
What are the footfalls in gallop?
Left lead gallop:
1. Right hind
2. Left hind
3. Right front
4. Right front
Right lead gallop:
1. Left hind
2. Right hind
3. Left front
4. Right front
126
Describe equine dental formula.
This describes the number of teeth in each of the dental arcades.
- The top number relates to maxillary teeth the bottom number to the mandibular arcade. Thus a horse will have 3 incisors on each of its upper and lower arcades (ie 3 left and right maxillary and 3 left and right mandibular incisors - 12 in total).
- Horses may have canines and wolf teeth (vestigial first premolars) however these are variable and not found in all horses. The total number of teeth in a "normal" horse is thus between 36 - 44.
127
Give the dental formula for temporary teeth.
I - 3/3
C - 0/0
P - 3/3
M - 0/0
= 12 x 2 = 24
128
Give the dental formula for permanent teeth.
I - 3/3
C - 1/1
M - 3/3
= 20 or 21 x 2 = 40 or 42
129
Describe the Triadan system in equine dentistry.
* Right maxillary permanent arcade is 100 and the deciduous arcade is 500
* Left maxillary permanent arcade is 200 and deciduous arcade is 600
* Left mandibular permanent arcade is 300 and deciduous arcade in 700
* Right mandibular permanent arcade is 400 and deciduous arcade is 800
* Individual teeth are then numbered from 1-11 from the central incisor to last molar. If teeth are missing the number usually allocated to that tooth is skipped.
* 4s relate to canines and 9s relate to 1st molars
130
What are the 4 surfaces of equine incisors?
* Labial surface – adjacent to lips (incisors)
* Buccal surface – adjacent to cheek (canines, premolars, molars)
* Lingual surface – adjacent to tongue (mandibular arcades)
* Occlusal surface – biting surface of the teeth
131
When do deciduous incisors erupt and are in wear?
01 central incisor: erupt at 6 days, in wear by a month
02 middle incisor: erupts at 6 weeks, in wear by 3 months
03 corner incisor: erupts at 6 months, in wear in a year
132
When do permanent incisors erupt and in wear?
01 central incisor = erupt at 2.5 years, in wear at 3 years
02 middle incisor = erupt at 3.5 years, in wear at 4 years
03 corner incisor = erupt at 4.5 years, in wear at 5 years
133
Describe the presence of equine canines.
Inconsistent in presence but tend to be symmetrically paired left to right (upper, lowers, non or all 4)
Wide range of eruption time between 4-7 years
Present in more males than females but may be present or absent in either sex
If present, then expect permanent dentition
134
Describe the presence of equine wolf teeth.
- Vestigial 1st premolar
- Erupts from 5 months to few years
- Inconsistent in presence but tend to be symmetrically paired left to right (uppers, lowers, none or all 4)
- Located immediately rostral to premolar 2/1st cheek tooth, possibly with small diastema/gap
- Frequently extracted as they may interfere with bit
135
When do deciduous premolars erupt and become in wear?
06 PM2, 07 PM3, 08 PM4
All erupt at 0-2 weeks
All in wear by 6 months - 1 year
136
When do premolars and molars erupt and become in wear?
```
06 PM2 = 2.5 years
07 PM3 = 3 years
08 PM4 = 4 years (last tooth to erupt so is frequently problematic)
09 M1 = 9-12 months
10 M2 = 2 years
11 M3 = 3.5-4 years
```
In wear within 6 months
137
Describe the appearance of deciduous teeth.
* Whiter
* Smaller
* Shinier
* Have rounder gingival margins
* Have fine vertical ridges and grooves on labial surface
138
Describe the appearance of permanent teeth?
* Creamier
* Larger
* Matt
* Have squarer gingival margins
* Have deeper grooves
* Far more likely to have tartar accumulations
139
Describe how teeth are used to age foals.
- Foals will have between 0-3 teeth per arcade
- Yearlings will have 3 deciduous incisors per arcade with early wear for 03s
- 2 year olds will have 3 deciduous incisors per arcade with no infundibulum in 03s
- At 2.5 years, the first permanent incisor erupts
140
How is incisive angle used to age horses?
The angle at which the incisors meet when viewed from the lateral side.
In a young horse, it is close to 180 degrees an becomes more oblique to 120 by 20 years. Usually the mandibular arcade is more oblique than the maxillary arcade.
141
How are occlusal surface features used to age horses?
* Infundibulum – a pack surrounded by an enamel infolding of the occlusal surface. It is deepest in younger horses and becomes shallower with age before disappearing to leave an enamel ring. It tends to become food stained and consequently may appear brown. It disappears from 01.02.03 at 6,7,8 years respectively but there is some variation between 5 and 9 years.
* Enamel ring – the lower half of the infundibulum is filled with the cement contained within the enamel ring. This is the shiny white ring. It disappears 12-18 years in 01 and 1-3 years in 02 and 03.
* Dental star – an areas of secondary dentine which full the area of the pulp cavity previously occupied. It appears as yellow brown nark on the occlusal surface of incisors labial to the infundibulum/enamel ring. It starts biased to the labial side and moves towards the centre of the tooth as age increases, starts as a narrow line and become more circular with age. Appears in 01,02 and 03 at 5,6, and 7 years respectively.
* Table shape – the occlusal surface shap varies according to age
* It is progress through the following shape sequence: rectangular > oval > round > triangular > bianglular.
142
How is labial view used to age a horse?
Initially teeth are a flat rectangle(ie they are wider than they are tall) 03 becomes square at 6-7years, then develop to tall rectangles as increasing amount of neck then root becomes exposed. 01 becomes shorter than 02 from about 12 years of age.
