Establishing Communist Rule (1949-57)

Question 1

How and when was the People’s Republic of China (PRC) established, and what did it signify?

Answer 1

The PRC was officially proclaimed by Mao Zedong on 1 October 1949 in Tiananmen Square, Beijing

Approximately 300,000 supporters attended the rally

It marked the end of the Chinese Civil War (1946–49) and over 20 years of national instability

The Chinese people welcomed it as a relief after prolonged conflict and chaos

Question 2

What caused the political chaos in China between 1911 and 1927?

Answer 2

The Qing dynasty, which had ruled since 1644, was overthrown in 1911, ending imperial rule

The new republic quickly disintegrated as regional warlords fought for power, ignoring the central government

This led to over a decade of instability, as no single authority could impose national unity

Question 3

How did Chiang Kai-shek and the Guomindang (GMD) gain control, and why did their alliance with the CCP fail?

Answer 3

By the late 1920s, Chiang Kai-shek led the Guomindang (GMD) to defeat the warlords and impose central authority

Initially, the GMD and Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had collaborated, but their aims diverged significantly

From 1927, Chiang sought to destroy the CCP, pushing them into rural China

Question 4

What was the significance of the Jiangxi Soviet and the Long March (1934)?

Answer 4

The CCP regrouped and established the Jiangxi Soviet in 1928 after being driven inland by Chiang

Chiang launched encirclement campaigns to starve and isolate the Communists

In 1934, around 100,000 Communists began a desperate retreat known as the Long March

Only 20,000 survived, reaching Yanan, where the CCP set up a new base

It was in Yanan that Mao Zedong emerged as the Party’s undisputed leader and the CCP gained governing experience

Question 5

How did the Japanese invasion affect China and CCP-GMD relations from 1931 to 1945?

Answer 5

Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and began the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 by expanding south

The GMD and CCP formed a United Front to resist the Japanese threat

Despite this, Japan occupied the eastern coastal zone until 1945

The attack on Pearl Harbor (December 1941) brought US support, strengthening China’s resistance

The US backed Chiang, hoping he would lead China, and Chiang hoped US troops would help destroy the CCP

The war ended suddenly in 1945 when America dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, forcing Japan’s surrender

Question 6

How did the Chinese Civil War resume and conclude between 1946 and 1949?

Answer 6

Despite US attempts to form a coalition government, war resumed in 1946

Chiang had superior resources but squandered his advantage by attacking Manchuria prematurely

The CCP survived, regrouped, and moved south, gradually taking over Nationalist areas

In December 1949, Chiang fled to Taiwan, while Mao and the CCP took de facto control of the mainland

Question 7

What challenges and opportunities did the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) face after the civil war ended in 1949?

Answer 7

Years of unrest (including the 1946–49 civil war) made China difficult to govern

However, the end of conflict created widespread goodwill towards the Communists

The CCP’s success in expanding their control during the war demonstrated greater organisational competence than the Nationalists, who had squandered their opportunities

These factors gave the CCP reason for optimism in October 1949

Question 8

How did non-Communists respond to the establishment of the PRC in 1949?

Answer 8

Many non-Communists believed that life under Mao Zedong might be at least tolerable

Mao made it clear that creating a Communist society would be a long-term project

In the short term, he expressed willingness to work with all social groups who had China’s interests at heart

This suggested the possibility of a new United Front, representing middle-class as well as working-class and peasant interests

For many, this was more attractive than fleeing to join the Nationalists in Taiwan

Question 9

How did the civil war strengthen Mao Zedong’s leadership position in 1949?

Answer 9

Mao’s reputation was greatly enhanced by his role in transitioning from guerrilla to open warfare

He overcame internal military doubts, showing strong personal will and leadership

After the war, Mao was seen as the undisputed architect of New China

He enjoyed total loyalty from the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), giving him firm control over the new regime

Question 10

What was Mao’s plan for political control in post-war China?

Answer 10

Mao aimed to restore national stability by making all political opposition impossible

This approach followed his earlier strategy in Yanan, where he had imposed personal authority and suppressed dissent

He had learned from Chiang Kai-shek’s failure, caused partly by factionalism within the GMD

Mao wanted a system in which all power rested with himself and the CCP, backed by the military if necessary

Question 11

How did the CCP build a broad support base during the civil war?

Answer 11

Initially, the CCP focused on winning peasant support, by:

Ensuring the Red Army treated peasants more fairly than GMD troops

Implementing land redistribution from landowners to poor peasants

These strategies successfully gained widespread peasant loyalty

Question 12

How did the Communists gain experience in urban governance during the civil war?

Answer 12

At first, the only major city the Communists controlled was Harbin, in northern Manchuria

There, they gained their first experience of governing a large urban area

As their territory expanded, they applied lessons from Harbin to other cities

This allowed them to broaden their support base to include urban populations, not just rural peasants

Question 13

Overall, how serious were the problems facing the PRC in 1949?

Answer 13

While governing China after decades of unrest was a serious challenge, the situation in 1949 was relatively promising for the Communists

The end of war, public goodwill, Mao’s unchallenged authority, and the CCP’s growing administrative experience all contributed to a favourable starting point

Question 14

How did war affect China’s economy by 1949?

Answer 14

China’s economy was devastated by 12 years of war (1937–49)

By 1936, the economy was recovering from the Great Depression, but war from 1937 reversed that progress

Japanese forces seized key industrial regions and carried out bombing raids, damaging industry

Scorched-earth tactics by retreating Nationalists worsened destruction

By 1945, industrial output was just 25% of its pre-war level

Question 15

What was the state of agriculture in China in 1949?

Answer 15

Agriculture was critically disrupted by war and conscription of peasants

Massive displacement of people inland to escape Japanese forces reduced rural stability

Food production in 1945 was 30% lower than in 1937

Henan province suffered a famine during the war, killing 2–3 million people

Rural areas struggled to feed themselves, let alone supply the 20% urban population, which relied on surplus food

Food requisitioning continued post-1949 to feed the growing urban population and PLA

Question 16

What was the financial situation in China in 1949?

Answer 16

The GMD had borrowed and printed money to finance the war

By 1945, this caused hyperinflation, which worsened in Chiang’s final years

In 1949, inflation stood at 1,000%

Chiang Kai-shek worsened the problem by taking China’s foreign currency reserves when he fled to Taiwan

Financial stabilisation became a top priority for the Communists

Question 17

How did foreign powers affect China’s post-war economic recovery?

Answer 17

The Japanese left in 1945, but civil war from 1946–49 prolonged economic instability

Soviet troops entered Manchuria in 1945, seized industrial assets, and left later, damaging industrial prospects

These external disruptions compounded China’s economic crisis

Question 18

What was the long-term state of agriculture in China by 1949?

Answer 18

China was predominantly agricultural, producing rice, wheat, and oilseeds

Farming was labour-intensive, with minimal mechanisation and no tractors

Only 15% of China’s land was cultivable, limiting output without modernisation

Farmers were previously hurt by the drop in food prices during the Great Depression due to export reliance

Rural food sufficiency was possible only in the absence of natural disasters

Question 19

What were China’s demographic challenges in 1949?

Answer 19

China’s population in 1949 stood at 541 million

It rose to 563 million in 1951 and 587 million by 1963, despite 20 million deaths in the war

Urban migration and population growth placed increasing pressure on food production

Question 20

Why was industrial development a major concern in 1949?

Answer 20

China had not undergone an industrial revolution, despite:

Raw materials

Large labour force

Sources of power

Industrial progress was hampered by:

Low labour costs, reducing incentive for labour-saving innovations

Poor communications infrastructure

Lack of technical knowledge

Industrial centres were located in:

Manchuria (occupied by Japan since 1931)

Yangtze delta

Eastern seaboard

Question 21

What was the National Resources Committee (NRC) and how did it contribute to China’s industry?

Answer 21

The NRC was created by Chiang Kai-shek in 1932 to offset the loss of Manchuria

It directed investment into other industrial areas

By 1945:

70% of industry was state-owned

NRC had 30,000 technical experts supervising 250,000 workers

Many NRC experts remained in mainland China after 1949 and worked for the Communists

These state industries remained nationalised under Communist rule

Question 22

What problems did China face in developing its industrial labour force?

Answer 22

Despite the NRC’s efforts, industry was held back by:

Long-term underinvestment

Lack of skilled workers

Future industrial growth would need to be state-directed and supported by a more productive agricultural sector

Question 23

What was the condition of China’s infrastructure in 1949?

Answer 23

Infrastructure was already underdeveloped before the war, and bombed or neglected between 1937–49

Key transport and communication links had to be rebuilt and modernised urgently

Functional networks existed mainly in:

Manchuria

East coast cities

Lower Yangtze basin

Mao had tested radio broadcasting in Yanan and launched a state radio station in Beijing in 1949, but nationwide communication remained weak

Question 24

What were the key economic priorities for the CCP in 1949?

Answer 24

Stabilise the currency and combat hyperinflation

Modernise agriculture to feed a growing and urbanising population

Restore and expand infrastructure, especially roads, railways, and communications

Launch state-led industrialisation to ensure long-term survival and growth of the PRC

Question 25

How successful were the Communists in creating a political system that gave them control of power in the PRC?

Answer 25

The Communists had to act quickly to avoid losing power and prevent anarchy following their victory It was essential to establish an air of legitimacy for the new regime so that people would accept its authority Preparations for the new political system began immediately after Beijing fell in January 1949, even though the People’s Republic of China (PRC) wasn’t officially declared until October 1949 The CCP collaborated with other anti-GMD groups during planning: This helped divide the nationalist opposition It created an appearance of broader support for the new regime The illusion of unity was maintained until the early 1950s, when the CCP felt strong enough to rule alone Temporary governing bodies and a provisional constitution were established immediately after the PRC’s declaration These allowed the regime to function before permanent political institutions were implemented in 1954 From the outset, it was made clear that: The Communist Party would lead the government Power would rest on a continued partnership with the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Control of the press was central to maintaining power: This control was already considered normal before 1949 The government used Xinhua, the state-controlled press agency, to direct all media messaging As a result, mass circulation newspapers reported favourably on government and party policies This ensured positive publicity for the new system from the beginning

Question 26

What was the role of the CPPCC in the formation of the PRC's political system (1949)?

Answer 26

In September 1949, with Communist victory imminent, the CCP convened the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) The CPPCC began constructing a new political system to replace the GMD’s It had 600 delegates, mainly Communist sympathisers, but also included minority groups such as the China Democratic League, enhancing its legitimacy The CPPCC: Appointed the Central People's Government as the supreme state body Approved the Common Program, a temporary constitution to guide China for the next five years Selected national symbols: the flag, anthem, calendar, and capital city (Beijing)

Question 27

What did the Common Program declare and enable in the PRC?

Answer 27

The Common Program described China as a new society based on an alliance between workers and peasants, represented by the Communist Party It guaranteed: A wide range of personal freedoms Gender equality This made China theoretically one of the freest countries in the world In practice, the Common Program allowed: The army and police to suppress all counter-revolutionary activity These powers were used extensively in the following years

Question 28

What political model did Mao promote under “New Democracy”?

Answer 28

Since China was not yet ready for full socialism, there was a transitional period of cooperation between the working class and capitalists Long-term survival of capitalist elements was clearly insecure In his speech "On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship", Mao: Identified four classes allowed rights in the new China All others (the "five black categories") were to be repressed Mao called this system New Democracy, though it functioned through Democratic Centralism

Question 29

How was law-making and legislative power structured under the CCP?

Answer 29

In law-making: The Central Government simply rubber-stamped Politburo proposals The CPPCC acted as the legislature until the constitution was published in 1954 All laws from the GMD era were abolished, as was the old judicial system

Question 30

How was regional control and centralisation of power enforced in the PRC?

Answer 30

China was divided into six regions (bureaux) to allow national policies to be imposed locally Regional congresses were created to give the appearance of local input Real power lay with four key CCP officials per region: A military commander An army political commissar A government chairman A Party secretary (the most powerful) In some cases, this power was highly concentrated: In Manchuria (Northeast Bureau), Gao Gang held all four positions Elsewhere, Deng Xiaoping, Lin Biao, and Peng Dehuai held multiple top roles This system aimed to prevent a return to the warlordism of the 1920s, where regional leaders had fought while the central government was powerless

Question 31

What did the 1954 Constitution establish and how did it reflect Soviet influence?

Answer 31

The 1954 Constitution officially confirmed China as a Communist country It was heavily based on the 1936 Soviet Russian Constitution It introduced new political structures: The National People’s Congress (NPC) became the new legislature The State Council replaced the Central People’s Government Although the system used democratic language, the Communist Party retained total control over the electoral process Real power lay in the top CCP bodies, where decisions were made before being formally approved by the state institutions

Question 32

How did China’s administrative structure change in 1954?

Answer 32

The original six-region system was reorganised China was now divided into: 21 provinces 5 autonomous border regions 2 urban centres: Beijing and Shanghai This administrative framework remains fundamentally based on the 1954 model, though it was modified in 1975

Question 33

What were the consequences of bureaucratisation in the PRC by the late 1950s?

Answer 33

The number of bureaucrats increased enormously: From 720,000 in 1949 To nearly 8 million by 1959 This growth strengthened central government in theory, but also caused concern Mao feared the "bureaucratisation of the revolution", a term referring to: The tendency of civil servants to focus on maintaining the status quo Their prioritisation of careers and legal procedure over revolutionary change The slowing of dynamic political action due to over-reliance on paperwork and administration Mao saw this problem as similar to what went wrong in Soviet Russia Trotsky had also warned about bureaucratisation during the Russian Revolution, sharing Mao’s concern

Question 34

What was the real power structure within the PRC despite constitutional language?

Answer 34

Despite democratic language in the 1949 and 1954 constitutions, the Communist Party (CCP) was always the real power in the PRC Key CCP officials held top roles in both state and military Zhou Enlai: Premier of the State Council (1949–1976) Peng Dehuai: Minister of Defence and Commander-in-Chief of the PLA In 1958, Mao stepped down as Head of State but remained Chairman of the CCP, showing that Party leadership outweighed state roles True political influence came with membership of the Politburo, the CCP’s most powerful body

Question 35

What was the importance and symbolism of Party headquarters?

Answer 35

The CCP headquarters was in Zhongnanhai, Beijing, adjacent to Tiananmen Square Zhongnanhai had previously been the municipal government buildings It became China’s equivalent of the Kremlin, representing centralised authority and continuity of Communist leadership

Question 36

How exclusive was CCP membership and how did the Party exert control?

Answer 36

Party membership was exclusive, based on ideological correctness and commitment Membership stats: October 1949: 4.5 million members (in a population of ~500 million) End of 1950: increased to 5.8 million Cadres (trained Party members) monitored all sectors—civil service, legal system, schools, and army—ensuring Maoist adherence

Question 37

How was mass participation encouraged and controlled in Maoist China?

Answer 37

Mass participation was encouraged more than in Russia, especially through Party-linked organisations: Youth League: 9 million members by 1953 Women’s Federation: 76 million members This created identification with Party goals and boosted grassroots engagement Two examples of effective mobilisation: Peasant participation in land reform (early 1950s) Student activism during the Cultural Revolution

Question 38

What role did the 'danwei' (work unit) system play in everyday control?

Answer 38

Every employed person belonged to a danwei (work unit) Each danwei was run by a Party cadre, ensuring political control of daily life Danwei responsibilities included issuing permits for travel, marriage, and job changes, giving the CCP deep control over citizens’ lives

Question 39

What was Mao's view on the relationship between the Party and the military?

Answer 39

Mao famously declared: "Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun. Our principle is that the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to control the Party" — Problems of War and Strategy (1938) This statement guided CCP doctrine: the Party must always control the army, never the reverse By keeping military power subordinate, Mao avoided the risk of a military dictatorship

Question 40

What role did the PLA play in CCP mythology and political power?

Answer 40

The PLA’s victory over the Japanese and GMD was central to CCP legitimacy and myth The PLA embodied revolutionary values: Discipline Self-sacrifice Perseverance against the odds It was the world’s largest army in 1950, with 5 million men Consumed over 40% of the state budget (including navy and air force)

Question 41

How and why was the PLA downsized in the early 1950s?

Answer 41

Under Minister of Defence Peng Dehuai, the PLA was reduced: 1950: 5 million 1953: 3.5 million 1957: 2.5 million Reasons for reduction: Reduce economic strain Free up manpower for the peacetime economy Reaffirm Party dominance over the military

Question 42

How did the PLA evolve in professionalism and structure during the 1950s?

Answer 42

As it shrank, the PLA became: More professional More technically advanced Less egalitarian, with rank-based pay scales replacing revolutionary equality To maintain support from the peasantry, the PLA’s political department issued a new code of conduct in 1956 Stressed helping peasants on collective farms

Question 43

What were the internal functions of the PLA after 1949?

Answer 43

Political indoctrination: oversaw 800,000 new conscripts per year (three-year terms) Workforce for public works: helped rebuild transport infrastructure after the civil war Enforced central control in the regions: In each region, 2 of the 4 top officials were senior PLA commanders Ensured central oversight and prevented local autonomy

Question 44

What was the PLA’s external role after the revolution?

Answer 44

The PLA’s external mission was to help China achieve Great Power status It quickly played this role in the Korean War, showcasing Chinese military strength The PLA became a symbol of China’s international presence and Communist commitment

Question 45

How did Mao rise to leadership of the Communist Party?

Answer 45

Mao became Party leader in 1943, following the Rectification Campaign The campaign confirmed Mao’s reputation as the leading Party theorist It also demonstrated Mao’s ability to impose his will on others In October 1949, Mao was made head of state and head of the Communist Party Appointed as Chair of the Central People’s Government

Question 46

What power did Mao hold within the Party and government?

Answer 46

Mao’s constitutional power was significant but not absolute Collective leadership was theoretically in charge of policy decisions Key decisions were expected to emerge from Politburo debates Despite this, Mao set the pace and direction of policy, particularly in: 1950: Decision to intervene in the Korean War 1952: Decision to attack the bourgeoisie in the Five Antis Campaign

Question 47

What challenges did Mao face in asserting control within the Party?

Answer 47

1956 Party Congress: Removed references to Mao Zedong Thought as the guiding ideology of the Party while Mao was unwell Took months to secure Party support for the Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-57) Frequent disputes over the speed of agricultural change Despite these challenges, Mao was a formidable political manipulator, playing people off against each other

Question 48

What were the key elements of Mao’s ideology, known as Mao Zedong Thought?

Answer 48

Mao Zedong Thought adapted Marxism to Chinese conditions, focusing on the peasantry instead of the industrial workforce Nationalism Continuing revolution Listening to the people Mass mobilisation

Question 49

What did Mao believe regarding Nationalism in China?

Answer 49

Nationalism was central to Mao’s thinking: Like the GMD, Mao sought to free China from foreign exploitation Mao prioritized China’s national interests over other ideological concerns He did not follow the Russian model slavishly, but used it to China’s advantage

Question 50

What did Mao mean by Continuing Revolution?

Answer 50

Mao believed 1949 was just the beginning of the revolution, not its end He worked with former GMD supporters for their expertise, allowing limited capitalism and nationalisation in 1949 Mao’s ultimate goal was to ensure revolutionary zeal never faded, with each generation’s active participation in the revolution Purges, struggle sessions, and movements like the Hundred Flowers Campaign and Cultural Revolution were tools to maintain this revolutionary fervour

Question 51

How did Mao view the importance of Listening to the People?

Answer 51

Mao criticized Russian Communists for failing to respond to the people’s concerns He advocated for people’s involvement in discussing policy to avoid losing touch with the masses However, his behaviour during the Hundred Flowers Campaign suggests he may not have fully meant it This concept was about engaging the population but also controlling the narrative

Question 52

What was Mao’s approach to Mass Mobilisation?

Answer 52

Mao prioritized mass campaigns aimed at achieving specific targets, valuing enthusiasm over expertise China’s large population was a key asset to Mao, and he sought to channel this power into achieving economic and political goals Although Mao delegated policy-making to others, he intervened periodically to ensure the correct ideological line Those deviating from it faced struggle sessions

Question 53

What is Democratic Centralism, and how was it applied in China?

Answer 53

Democratic Centralism was a principle reaffirmed in the 1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China (PRC) Also applied in Communist Russia, it governed how power was exercised in China At the lowest level, there were elections to village and town councils, which continued up through the system Delegates from lower bodies were sent to represent people at higher levels However, the entire process was controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Theoretical democracy existed, but there was no choice of Party This means the democratic element was only theoretical, as all decisions were controlled by the CCP

Question 54

How did the ‘centralism’ aspect of Democratic Centralism work in China?

Answer 54

The ‘centralism’ aspect was real, with political decisions being made at the top level by senior officials These decisions were imposed through various levels of the system without further discussion The justification for this was that only Party leaders, with their education in the science of revolution, were qualified to understand what course of action would best serve the workers

Question 55

How does Democracy differ in various political systems, and how was it viewed in China?

Answer 55

In Britain, democracy is often tied to the idea of individual freedom, where the government is expected to act on the will of the majority while considering the minority’s views In France, democracy emphasizes the role of the government to determine what is best for society, even if it means imposing decisions against the minority's wishes Chinese Communist leaders, several of whom were influenced by French political thought, prioritized the collective over the individual This led to a view where individual rights and freedoms were less important than the Party’s agenda

Question 56

How did Mao’s power evolve over time, and how did this impact his leadership?

Answer 56

Mao’s power grew significantly over time, but he became increasingly insecure The more authority Mao gained, the more he feared losing it Mao also feared that enemies within were plotting against him This insecurity led to the frequent purges and ‘anti-campaigns’ that marked his leadership These purges were designed to eliminate perceived threats to his power within the Party

Question 57

How did Mao deal with opposition and potential threats to his power?

Answer 57

Mao, like Lenin in Russia, used deception to neutralise potential opponents Promised disaffected groups things they wanted and then broke these promises once his power was more secure Peasants were promised land redistribution Workers were promised higher living standards Minorities were promised autonomy Intellectuals were promised freedom Businessmen were told private ownership would continue The CPPCC conference in 1949 included members of the Democratic League (a splinter group from the GMD), giving the appearance of inclusive politics