Establishment and Early Years of Weimar 1918-24 Flashcards
Chapter 1
1
Q
When did the Kaiser abdicate?
A
9th Nov 1918
2
Q
When was the armistice signed?
A
11th Nov 1918
3
Q
What were Wilson’s Fourteen points?
A
Was a negotiated peace settlement
- Return Alsace-Lorraine to France
- Established League of Nations
- General disarmament
4
Q
What were the October reforms?
A
Was a revolution from above / Kaiser began reforms to end his autocratic rule
- Max Baden appointed Chancellor
- Armed forces under control of civil gov
- Chancellor responsible for Reichstag and established new gov based on the majority party (including SPD)
5
Q
What was the Peace note?
A
- Prince Max wrote to Wilson on Oct 3rd asking for armistice
- Wilson demanded Germany evacuate all occupied territory, end submarine warfare and democratise its political system
- Was too much for Ludendorff to accept / failed to gather support for last military resistance so resigned / fled to Sweden
6
Q
What was the impact of the armistice and peace note?
A
- Shattering blow to the morale of civilians as it was an admission that they had lost the war
- Lost faith in Kaiser and soldiers lost respect for officers
- 28th Oct 1919 Naval mutiny when crews refused orders to attack British ships in Eng channel
7
Q
What was the November revolution of 1918?
A
- 3rd Nov - sailors in Kiel mutinied against officers / took control of base
- Led to workers’ and soldiers’ councils being established (like Soviets in 1917 Rev)
- Most council members were patriotic Germans who wanted Kaiser to abdicate and democratic republic established
- 8th Nov - A republic was declared in Bavaria
- 9th Nov - SPD workers called general strike to force Kaiser to abdicate and threatened to withdraw support for Max’s gov
- When Kaiser refused, Max released press statement that Kaiser had abdicated, he resigned as Chancellor and handed position to Ebert (SPD leader)
- Scheidemann (SPD figure) declared Germany a Republic even though Kaiser had still not yet abdicated
- General Groener told Kaiser army wouldn’t fight for him so forced to abdicate
8
Q
What was Ebert’s priority during the struggle for power?
A
- To organise elections for a Constituent Assembly (elected members to draw up new constitution)
- Ebert’s power only extended to Berlin where there was growing violence and disorder due to the demobilised army and workless ex-soldiers roaming streets
9
Q
Who were the political parties in 1918?
(7)
A
- KPD / Spartacists - Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemborg
- USPD - Hugo Hasse
- SPD - Ebert and Scheidemann
- Centre - support in Cath Bavaria/Rhineland, supported democracy
- DDP - left-leaning, supported democracy
- DNVP - nationalist/conservative, rejected democracy
- DVP - right-leaning, opposed to new republic
10
Q
What pressure was there from the left?
A
- Pressure for radical change (early stages of revolution seen through councils and Spartacists)
- Agreement between gov and soldiers/workers councils that gov only exercised power in the name of the councils
- Many USPD believed councils showed revolutionary will of the people and that the autocratic gov couldn’t be abolished unless autocratic states were broken up, army/civil service/judiciary democratised and industries were nationalised
11
Q
What pressure was there from the army?
Ebert-Groener Pact
A
- Army didn’t want republic
- Fear for Bolshevik-style rev and civil war
- 10th Nov - Groener called Ebert to assure that army would support gov, in return, demanded that Ebert resisted the demands of soldiers’ councils to democratise the army and to defend Germany against a Communist rev
12
Q
What happened in the Elections to the Constituent Assembly?
A
- Jan 1919
- Women allowed to vote for first time
- SPD had largest share of vote but not overall majority so had to compromise with other parties to establish new constitution
- Weimar Republic established with Ebert elected President and gov led by Scheidemann
- SPD in coalition with Centre and DDP
- Constitution designed to guarantee rights and powers of the people
13
Q
What were the strengths of the Constitution?
A
- More democratic than other countries, women could vote and become deputies
- Proportional representation let smaller parties win seats in the Reichstag
- Full democracy in local and central gov
- “All Germans are equal before the law” - clearly set out rights of the individual
- Referendums called by President, Reichsrat or people’s request
14
Q
What were the weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution?
A
- Proportional representation led to smaller, sometimes extremist parties gaining representation
- No larger party could gain overall majority so all govs were coalitions
9 coalitions between 1919-1923 - Article 48 - President had rule by decree in emergency but powers often abused, e.g Ebert used 136 times to override opposition in Reichstag
15
Q
The Constitution of the German Republic
A
- President could dissolve Reichstag, call new elections, rule by decree (Article 48)
- Chancellor proposed new laws
- Reichsrat - second chamber of Parl, gave advice on laws
- Reichstag - elected every 4 years, new laws required approval of a majority deputy
16
Q
Army
A
- Determined to preserve independence in Weimar republic
- van Seeckt believed army owed loyalty not to republic but nationalistic Reich
- Army could intervene in politics when Seeckt saw fit
17
Q
Civil Service
A
- Had freedom of political opinion / expression as long as it didn’t conflict with duty of loyalty to the state, meant that gov administration was left to those with an anti-democratic outlook
- Top civil servants could wield enormous power when ministers in coalition govs frequently changed
18
Q
Judiciary
A
- Judges in the 2nd empire remained
- Were monarchists and anti-democratic
- Left wings were punished more severely before court whilst right wing were lenient
19
Q
When did the Allies discuss peace treaty / when could Germany see terms?
A
- January 1919
- May 7th, given 7 days to accept the treaty from the 16th June
- Signed on 28th June
20
Q
Terms of Versaille Treaty
(10)
A
- Alsace-Lorraine given back to France
- Polish corridor given back to Poland
- Lost 75% of its iron ore, 65% zinc, 26% coal, 15% arable land
- All overseas colonies placed under control of League of Nations
- Restrictions of 100,000 men in army, 15,000 in navy, 6 battleships, no submarines, no airforce
- Rhineland demilitarised
- Austria forbidden from uniting with Germany
- Not allowed to join League of Nations
- Article 231 - war guilt clause, had to accept responsibility for starting war
- £6.6 billion in reparations
21
Q
What was the German reaction to the Versaille Treaty?
A
- Universal resentment to those who signed it
- War guilt clause seen as unjust national humiliation as Germans believed they had been forced into war as Allies encircled them
- Reparations angered many as it would cripple German economy
- In places occupied by allies (e.g Saarland by France), outlawing of nationalist groups and banning of patriotic songs and German festivals led to friction
22
Q
How justified were German complaints about Treaty?
A
- 14 points and armistice made it clear that Alsace-Lorraine would be returned to France and considerable disarmament was to be expected
- Clemenceau wanted harsher terms so Germany wouldn’t threaten them again but others wanted Germany strong enough to withstand spread of communism from Russia
- Germany had punished Russia even more severely in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as had broken up western part of Russian Empire
- If Germany had won war, peace settlement would have been very harsh on defeated allies
- Reparations were lower than French wanted and they did have the capacity to pay
23
Q
What was the political crisis in June 1919?
A
- Scheidemann resigned as he didn’t want to accept Treaty
- A new coalition cabinet led by Bauer was formed
- Was inevitable so signed the Treaty
24
Q
Reaction of left to signing of treaty
A
- Believed that most sensible course of action was to outwardly comply with terms of treaty whilst negotiating modifications to it - Policy of Fulfillment
- Demoralised and associated the Republic with weakness and failure
25
Reactions on right to signing of treaty
- German nationalists couldn't accept military defeat or the new republic, many joined groups wanting to overthrow the republic
- November criminals had betrayed 'Fatherland' by dethroning Kaiser, signing armistice and accepting treaty - 'stab in the back'
- Myth appealed to ex-soldiers who couldn't adapt to civilian life and craved comradeship / sense of purpose so drawn to Freikorps and other right-wing nationalist groups
26
Reactions of Treaty from abroad
Britain:
- Satisfied with Germany's loss of colonies and fleet
- Lloyd George privately believed Germany should be strong to resist expansion of USSR and remain strong trading partner
- Saw French as greedy / felt Germany was treated unfairly at Versaille
France:
- Felt they suffered the most so wanted revenge
- Despite demands for Alsace / demilitarisation were met, still felt it was too lenient
US:
- Believed treaty was unfair and Brit/Fra used it to enrich themselves
- Made separate peace with Germany and refused to join League of Nations / retreated from involvement in European affairs
27
Financial problems after war
| Inflation
- Germany's defeat plunged finances into crisis
- Gov chose to finance war through increased borrowing and printing more money meaning debt grew and value of currency fell
- 1919 -new Weimar Republic faced with debt of 1.44 million marks
- Despite high debts, unemployment virtually disappeared by 1921 and there was rapid recovery in economic activity
Prices had doubled between 1918-19 and quadrupled between 1919-20
- 1920 centre party coalition led by Fehrenbach benefited from inflation as loans for repayment had reduced by the time they were due
- By 1923, became hyperinflation
28
Impact of reparations
- Germany made first payment soon after signing the treaty, hoping to win sympathy from allies - Policy of Fulfillment
- 1922 - economic difficulties led to postponements of Jan and Feb installments
- French were suspicious after Germany asked for further suspensions of payments so occupied Ruhr to get payment by force
- Gold reserves inadequate for payment required and coal reserves were lost in treaty
- Therefore gov printed more money, worsening inflation and decreasing value of the mark
29
Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr
- Germany fell behind French coal payment in 1922 so French/Belgians sent 60,000 men to occupy Ruhr to force Germans to comply with treaty
- Chancellor Cuno ordered policy of passive resistance by stopping all repayments and no one in the area would cooperate with French (workers were encouraged to go on strike to disrupt French effort)
- French set up military courts to punish those who didn't comply
- 150,000 Germans expelled from area, 132 shot
Economic effects:
- Paying wages for striking workers drained finances
- Tax revenue lost from closed businesses and unemployed workers
- Had to import and pay for coal from foreign currency reserves
- Shortages of goods pushed prices up
30
Impact of hyperinflation crisis
- Food ran short as many hoarded in anticipation for even higher prices in future
- Led to breakdown of law and order e.g foot riots, theft
31
Who were the winners in hyperinflation?
- Black marketeers sold food at highly inflated prices
- Those with debts/mortgages/loans could pay them off in worthless currency
- Enterprising business people took out loans and repaid once currency devalued further
- Those leasing on long-term fixed rents gained as the real value of rents they were paying decreased
- Farmers coped well as food was valued over money
32
Who were the losers in hyperinflation?
- Pensioners / war widows
- Those who lent money to the gov as interest payments decreased in value
- Landlords relying on fixed rents
- Unskilled workers who did not belong to a trade union, increase in short-time working, only 29.3% of workforce was fully employed
- Small business owners and Mittelstand couldn't keep up with pace of inflation
- The sick couldn't afford medical care, rise in food prices led to malnutrition/increased diseases associated with dietary deficiency
33
What were the problems of coalition government?
- Electoral system was based on proportional representation so no party had overall majority, led to coalitions
- Society more divided and more wanted to overthrow Republic so more centre parties (SPD, Centre, DDP) needed stable coalition
- Leaders unable to compromise e.g Scheidemann cabinet resigned as couldn't agree to sign treaty, Fehrenbach cabinet over whether to accept Allied ultimatum on reparations
- Extreme parties gained support but wouldn't join coalitions so hard to form gov without Reichstag majority
34
What was the Spartacist Uprising?
- Jane 1919 - KPD - Rosa Luxemburg & Karl Liebknecht attempted to overthrow Ebert's gov and set up communist regime
- Occupied newspaper offices and public buildings but was poorly supported by working class in Berlin
- Put down by Freikorps, leaders executed, deepened divisions on left
35
Who were the Freikorps?
- Disintegration of regular army after defeat and revolution on 1918
- Hindenburg and Groener encouraged officers to recruit volunteers into new Freikorps unity - mostly from demobilised junior army officers/corporals/sergeants
- Under command of Luttwitz, given uniforms and weapons but not officially part of the army
- Less disciplined and gave full aggressive expression
36
Left wing risings
- KPD inspired by Bolshevik rev but didn't have support or determination
- March 1919 - communist gov based on workers' councils established in Bavaria and another Spartacist rising in Berlin but both suppressed
- April 1919 - strikes in Halle and Ruhr as workers wanted shorter hours and more control over their own industries
- 1920 - Communists formed 'Red Army' of 50,000 workers and seized control of Ruhr, Freikorps struggled to crush rising - Troubles broke out with over 1000 workers and 250 soldiers/police killed
- March 1921 - KPD tried to force revolution/started strike in Saxony, spread to Hamburg and Ruhr, crushed by police, 145 killed
- Overall fear of 'red revolution' which frightened the middle classes and right-wing
37
What was the challenge from the right?
- Right wing hostile to Republic and democracy
Some wanted to restore monarchy, dictatorship, separation from Germany - these divisions weakened ability to overthrow Republic
- Ideas strong amongst Freikorps and army
38
What was the 1920 Kapp Putsch?
- Versaille obliged smaller army so Noske ordered 2 Freikorps units to disband
- Luttwitz refused and marched his troops to Berlin in protest, was supported by Kapp who wanted to organise a putsch
- von Seeckt and Ludendorff sympathised but didn't voice open support
- Ebert and Baur called regular army to crush rising, Seeckt told Ebert "Troops do not fire on troops"
- Putsch failed to gain widespread support, even from right wing
- Trade unions called general strike and Berlin brought to a standstill, within 4 days putsch collapsed
- Kapp and Luttwitz fled, Ebert's gov returned
- Putsch taught that army untrustworthy, civil servants disloyal, workers could show power and gov was weak without army support
- Leniency of right wing judges contrasted harsh treatment of left wing
39
Political assassinations
- Right wing nationalists committed to the elimination od politicians associated with the 'betrayal' of Germany
- 1931 - Erzberger was assassinated by a terrorist league, he had led the delegation for signing armistice and also signed Versaille
- Walther Rathenau assassinated for being a Jew and leading minister in republican gov, had signed armistice and negotiated with Allies to improve Versaille
- 376 assassinations between 1919-1923 (326 out of 354 right-wings went unpunished, 10 out of 22 left wing sentenced to death)
40
What was the Beer Hall Putsch?
- Nov 1923, Hitler secured support of Ludendorff and von Lossow
- 8th Nov - marched into Munich Beer Hall with 2000 SA announcing a rev had begun
- He persuaded them to agree to his plan to march to Berlin and install Ludendorff as new Commander-in-Chief
- Their support vanished overnight and Stormtroopers unable to gain control of Munich army barracks
- Hitler still marched but gun battle with police led him to flee but captured next day and arrested
- Nazis were banned and Hitler imprisoned
