Ethics Flashcards
Memorize
Describe Bentham’s utilitarianism (5 words)
Teleological Action-based Normative Hedonistic Quantative
What is The Principle of Utility? (U)
Bentham
Outlines a moral action as one that increases happiness and avoids pain. Calculates the net utility (greatest balance of pleasure over pain achievable) from a sum of interests.
What is the Hedonic/Utility Calculus? (U)
A quantitative device/way to help decide on moral actions created by Bentham, made up of 7 elements
What are the elements of the Hedonic Calculus? (7 words) (U)
Certainty (predicting consequences) Remoteness (near to you) Duration Fecundity (fruitfulness, how likely to cause pleasure and lead to more) Intensity Extent (how many affected) Purity (are pleasure/pain mixed?)
What are some strengths of Hedonic Calculus? (U)
Appears to be: objective, systematic, universal
‘Helpful’ guide to moral dilemmas
What are some weaknesses of Hedonic Calculus? (U)
Cant be objective (individuals give situations different values)
Too many factors to be practical
Not specific to amounts of pleasure given from different things: all the same
Not clear or practical
Leads to tyranny of the majority
What is Tyranny of the Majority? And its effect on Bentham’s utilitarianism (U)
When majority can terrorise minority: which technically creates greatest pleasure according to Bentham
Leads to counter-intuitive actions (e.g. gang rape) being portrayed as “moral”
How did John Stuart Mill further Bentham’s ideas? (U)
Addressed types of pleasure and pain still focused on quantity for outcome
^ higher = mental (limited to humans)
v lower = physical
What was Mill’s quote on Human vs Pig? And what does he mean (U)
“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied”
He argued that people should strive for and only want intellectual pleasures. Takes more to achieve happiness, but it’s of greater value
Why does Mill compare us to Tender Plants? (U)
Explained that people sometimes choose lower pleasures because they are easy, but if we do not push further, we will lose our capacity for nobler feelings. Our intellect is a tender plant and must be cared for and not neglected
What are some strengths to Mills Utilitarianism? (U)
Differentiation between types of pleasure and pain
Could argue it avoids tyranny of the majority
What are some weaknesses to Mill’s utilitarianism? (U)
Elitist (people dont always have luxury for higher thinking e.g. time, resources)
Makes it very limited to most of humanity
Doesnt let for hybrid of mental and physical pleasures
Who are Competent Judges? (U)
People who have experienced both of the ‘things’ and have a preference (Mill)
How did Mill show Proof of Utilitarianism? (U)
Everything you want, is your need for happiness at its core
Happiness is the only thing of intrinsic, inherent value. The greatest outcome
What did Mill admit? (U)
Admitted that the proof of need for happiness is not deductive or certain, but it’s enough to establish utilitarianism as the reality of morality
Based on what we can see e.g. murder = sadness = morally wrong
What is an Act Utilitarian? (U)
Calculates the net utility based on the outcomes of a specific situation
Relative Specific Focus on immediate Narrow E.g. drink and drive to save a dying friend: would most likely drive
What is a strength and a weakness of an Act Utilitarian? (U)
Strength: adapts, flexible
Weakness: uncertain, too demanding; have to calculate every time
What is a Rule Utilitarian? (U)
Adheres to rules which generally promote the net utility
General
Absolute
Broad
E.g. will follow rules like dont lie, and wear a seatbelt no matter what
What is a strength and a weakness of a rule utilitarian? (U)
Strength: already established
Weakness: inflexible
How does Nozick disprove Mill’s proof of utilitarianism? (U)
Pleasure machine:
Demonstrates that hedonistic utilitarianism is based on unsound foundations. If it was true, we would all hook up to the machine that would make us experience pleasure and happiness all the time.
Claims we wouldn’t because we value genuine freedom above all else
What is Preference Utilitarianism? (U)
An action is good if it produces the greatest net utility of preferences (interests, wants, desires). Teleological but broader. Non-hedonistic
E.g. a person wants to be a poet as their true passion, but a lawyer for greater financial gain. May not choose the thing with greatest net utility of pleasure, because other will be personally fulfilling
Describe Peter Singer’s views (U)
Preference utilitarian
Non-hedonistic
Believed in choice: given what they want, not what will necessarily make them happy (but includes everything = alcoholism)
Speciesism: believes drawing a line between humans and animals is wrong. They can suffer and have a choice so we’re the same
What is a problem with Utilitarianism as a whole? (U)
Utilitarianism ignores both the moral integrity and intentions of the individual
(Integrity: ownership of actions, beliefs, principles, personal direction)
Who was Bernard Williams? (U)
Critisized utilitarianism for asking people to step away from actions and look at them mathematically; give up personal moral integrity
Demonstrates his ideas through Jim and George
Explain Jim and the Natives (U)
- Jims out exploring, when he stumbles on 20 people in a tribe about to be shot by the chief
- He talks to the chief, they become friendly, so chief says he can shoot 1 and the only 19 will be set free
- Utilitarianism says Jim should shoot the one person for greatest net utility. Williams says it ignores moral integrity of Jim, who will be forever connected to his action
Explain George the Scientist (U)
- George lost his job and has been long-term unemployed, but has to support suffering family
- He is head hunted by a biological weapons company
- George has always been against biological weapons, but someone will get the job regardless, it’s a matter of whether he can cope personally
- Utilitarianism says take the job and go against his own integrity: greatest pleasure for his family
Explain John Stuart Mill’s defence against Williams (U)
Stated we had some sort of religious morality/social construct = life is sacred
If we were raised with the Principle of Utility, situations like George and Jim wouldn’t make us feel as uncomfortable
Describe issues with Partiality (U)
J.S.Mill tells us to be impartial spectators
This makes the system fair but: if 2 people were drowning, your mother and a doctor on the verge of curing cancer, and you only have time to save one, utilitarianism tells you to save the Doctor. It tells us to ignore all ties
Rachels stated at this point “utilitarianism loses all touch with reality”
What did Coltingham say about Partiality? (U)
A parent who leaves their child to burn to save a stranger who’s future contributions to welfare are greater, is not a hero, but an object of moral contempt (a moral leper)
Discuss the problems with Calculating Consequences (U)
- Doesnt guide for a series of consequences (no action is stand-alone)
- We dont know what could happen in the future
(Kant rejected teleological because unpredictable. Bentham disagreed, saying we generally have a pretty accurate guess)
Describe Kants approach to ethics and motivation (list of 4) (KE)
Normative
Deontological
Based on the ability to reason
Wanted to create a universal, objective guide to morality
What is the Good Will Theory? (KE)
Kantian deontology
The only thing of intrinsic value is a good will which means having the right intentions = motivated by duty/act put of duty
What did Kant mean by acting out of duty? (KE)
Acting out of duty = moral action
e.g. giving to the poor because you should. Motivated by having a goodwill and following your duty even if you dont want to
Acting in accordance to duty = not a moral action
Its motivated by inclination or self-interest with whatever it is even giving to the poor. May aline with duty but not moral; holds wrong intention
What is Kant’s example of the Grocer? (KE)
A grocer keeps prices low, in order to attract more customers to his shop
This is not acting out of duty because it’s his own self interest not doing the right thing to help others
Describe the difference between Hypothetical and Categorical imperatives (KE)
Hypothetical=
2 elements: command and desire
E.g. dont tell lies
if you want to be respected
Not objective or universal
Outcome based
Not moral. Has self interest
Categorical= 1 element: command E.g. dont tell lies Intrinsic values: good just because it is Objective and universal rules All moral commands are categorical
Explain the first formulation of the categorical imperative (KE)
The Universalisability Formulation:
Actions should be at a universal standard; live by rules everyone can live by without contradiction
2 things to look at = can it universalised? Can we ‘will’ it to univeralise?
Explain “can we univeralise our maxim”?
maxim=action) (KE
Sometimes when we try to apply our maxim to all, it becomes self-contradicting and loses its meaning: a contradiction on the laws of nature
Have a perfect duty not to do it if it cant be universalised
E.g. (Kant’s example) A person is in need of money asks a friend for a loan. They promise to pay them back, but have no intention of truly doing so. This maxim cannot be univeralised, because if everyone broke their promises; promise has no meaning = contradiction
There is a perfect duty to others to not do it. Can be a perfect duty to yourself as well e.g. killing yourself
Explain “Can we ‘will’ it to universalise?” (KE)
as well as it being possible, we must ‘want’ our maxim to be universal (as rational beings not individuals)
e.g. Kant’s example: not helping others. It is technically possible to universalise, but rational beings wouldn’t ‘will’ it. Everyone would have/will need help in their lives
contradiction of the will = becomes an imperfect duty not to do it (not moral but not necessarily immoral)
It’s expected on humanity to help
(can also be an imperfect duty to yourself e.g. Kant’s example = come into a lot of money and don’t want to do anything. will be detrimental to yourself eventually)
What’s the difference between Perfect and Imperfect duties? (KE)
Perfect:
- results of universalisability in laws of nature
- absolute, clear, more important than imperfect
- we are immoral if we do not keep to our perfect duties
Imperfect:
- result of universalisability of the will
- moral if done, but not necessarily immoral if not done
- unclear
Explain the Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative (KE)
The Humanity Formulation:
Respecting the dignity of rational moral agents
Humans have intrinsic value and shouldn’t be valued instrumentally. Should not be used as a means to an end
Kant believed that humans have dignity + value because they are independent moral agents.
Less rational beings (e.g. children/those with learning difficulties) have only a partial status in the moral world as they can’t reason as well. Less moral value and need to be ‘protected’
What’s the ‘key idea’ about Kant’s 2nd Formulation (Humanity Formulation)? (KE)
We must always allow for humans to act as a rational moral agent
If we deny them this by:
-withholding information
-telling lies etc
Then we are simply using them as a means to an end
Want people to be: aware, active in decision making, processing
Not: passive, unsure of situation, being moved/used by another
List some (4) Strengths of Kantian Ethics (KE)
- Absolute Nature: situation is irrelevant, avoids calculating confusion like utilitarianism
- Deontological: look at intention, can’t always predict consequences, a posteriori (after experience)
- Intrinsic worth and dignity: doesn’t exploit people or use them. More human than utilitarianism
- Universal
List some (5) Weaknesses of Kantian Ethics (KE)
- Clashing and competing duties
- Ignoring value of some motives (e.g. love, kindness, friendship)
- Morality is more hypothetical than categorical
- Not all universalisable maxims are moral and vice versa
- Only focus on intention but consequences matter
Describe Aristotelean Ethics
VE
Person based: centred around the agent and their character instead of actions. Not teleological or deontological
Aretaic: ethics of virtue/excellence
Normative
What is The Lesser Good
VE
Subordinate goods
Only good as they lead to other goods
Instrumentally good
