Ethics Flashcards
(102 cards)
1
Q
What does aristotle attempt to describe and specify in the Nichomachean ethics
A
He attempts to describe and specify what the good life for human beings amounts to
Understand by way of the concept of human nature
2
Q
What is a good x?
A
what the good life for human beings amounts to
Understand the idea of a good human being by first considering what it means to that something is good
virtue ethics
3
Q
What is a good hammer ?
A
When it performs the tasks that are specific to hammers
The function of hammers
A good hammer optimally performs its function
4
Q
What is a good father ?
A
What is a good father?
What is the function of a father?
Help children grow into loving, responsible, independent adults
A good father is one who optimally performs that function
5
Q
So what does being a good X depend on ?
A
So to be a good X depends on the function, goal, or purpose of X
And what it takes to be good depends on the X (good father vs. good pianist)
6
Q
What did artistole think would happen on ce we figured out what the function of a human being wa s
A
Aristotle thought that once we figured out what the function of a human being was, we’ll thereby know what a good human being is. This will tell us what the good life amounts to.
virtue
7
Q
What is The characteristic that distinguishes human beings from other organisms
A
the development of rationality – the capacity for abstract thinking.
8
Q
Definition of theoretical and practical reasoning
A
Theoretical Reasoning: This is pure reasoning done for its own sake, aimed at seeking knowledge and truth. For Aristotle, the best life is one dedicated to theoretical reasoning, or contemplation. He believed this is the happiest and most fulfilling life because it aligns with our rational nature.
Practical Reasoning: This involves reasoning about how to act and make decisions in everyday life. It’s about applying reason to practical matters, guiding our actions toward achieving good outcomes.
8
Q
So what is a good life for human beings ?
A
The good life for human beings is one in which rational capacities are developed and exercised to a high degree
Human beings will then find the best sort of happiness for them
9
Q
What is the good life according to artistole
A
The good life is one in which those traits that are specifically human are brought to a high life of cultivation
10
Q
Views on happines and pleasure accoridng to aristotle
A
Happiness is not the same as pleasure (happiness is about a flourishing life)
11
Q
How can we not discover principles of morality
A
We cannot discover principles of morality by generalizing from specific cases.
12
Q
What corrects our actions from laws and makes us carry it out.
A
Our reason derives correct actions from laws, and the will carries out these actions.
13
Q
What provides a categorial imperative
A
Morality
14
Q
Hypothetical imperative
A
what you ought to do to achieve some end
Practice volleyball
15
Q
The categorical imperative
A
Act only according to that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it becomes a universal law (Universal Law Formulation)
No one should make an exception of herself – no one should exempt herself from the rules that everyone has to follow
15
Q
Categorical imperatives
A
What you ought to do, regardless of any ends
Do not lie
16
Q
Consider the maxim: ‘I will cheat in order to do well.’
A
if it were universal law then no one would use tests to assess people anymore so there would be no way to do well on tests
Contradiction
Fails the test
16
Q
What is a maxim
A
A statement of what one is doing and why one is doing it
Examples/
I will study in order to do well on my test
I will cheat in order to do well on my test
I will make an honest promise in order to get a loan
I will make a lying promise in order to get a loan
17
Q
What are perfect duties
A
Not to commit suicide
Not to make false promises
18
Q
Alternative expression of the categorical imperative
A
Always act such that you use humanity always as an end, and not merely as a means.
19
Q
What are imperfect duties
A
To develop one’s talents
To help others when one can
20
Q
What is the universal law formulation
A
The Universal Law Formulation is one of the formulations of Kant’s categorical imperative. It states that you should act only according to maxims that you can will to be universal laws, applicable to everyone without exception. Essentially, it means acting in a way that your actions could become a rule for everyone to follow. It’s about fairness and consistency in moral decision-making.
21
Q
Right thing to do (Mill)
A
The right thing to do is that which maximizes aggregate happiness.
The right thing to do is given by the categorical imperative.
The right thing to do is given by the rules to which reasonable people would agree.
The right thing to do is what the truly virtuous person would do.
The right thing to do is given by the generalization of our reasoned judgments about concrete cases.
22
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory, meaning it judges actions by their outcomes. According to utilitarianism, the goal is to maximize overall happiness or utility. The best action is the one that increases the sum of happiness for the greatest number of people. It's all about balancing benefits and harms to achieve the greatest good. Quite the moral balancing act, wouldn’t you say? Anything specific you'd like to unpack about utilitarianism?
23
Criticism of utilitarianism
Actions are right for the wrong reasons.
Demands too much of moral actors
24
What are Kans deontological ethics about
Kant's deontological ethics is all about duty and moral rules. Unlike consequentialist theories, it doesn't focus on the outcome of actions but rather on the actions themselves and whether they align with universal moral principles. Respecting the value and equality of others means acting according to rules that everyone can follow, no exceptions.
25
Nietszsche theory critcism
Nietzsche criticizes all theories that attempt to identify morality through careful reasoning. He argues that morality is a socially constructed set of rules designed to serve the interests of specific people. Instead of using reason to determine morality, Nietzsche believes we should search for the origins of these moral rules, revealing the power dynamics and historical contexts behind them.
26
Mill's Utilitarianism
Mill: Mill argues that the right thing to do is that which maximizes aggregate happiness.
Responds to objections
27
What is utilitarianism
Greatest happines principle, happiness, unhappines
Greatest Happiness Principle: actions are right in proportion as they promote happiness, wrong in proportion that they produce unhappiness.
Happiness: pleasure, absence of pain
Unhappiness: pain, absence of pleasure
Happiness is the only thing that is good in itself.
28
Doctrine worthy of swine
Objection: There is no higher end than pleasure? This critique, often referred to as the "doctrine worthy of swine," suggests that such a belief devalues human pleasures, equating them to those of animals. Epicurus countered this by arguing that the objection itself underestimates humans and their capacity for higher, intellectual pleasures, as opposed to merely base, physical ones.
29
Is there a difference in the quality of pleasures according to John Stuart Mill?
Yes, John Stuart Mill argued that there is a qualitative difference in pleasures. He stated that people prefer pleasures that engage higher faculties. Evidence of this is that no one would choose to become a lower creature. As Mill said, “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” (NIP 792)
30
: Whose happiness should be maximized according to utilitarian principles?
Not the agent alone, but the aggregate happiness of all concerned. Laws, social institutions, education, and opinions should be arranged to cultivate an association between one's own happiness and the good of the whole.
Q: Why should happiness be maximized?
A: Because, in fact, every person's ultimate goal is to be the standard of morality.
31
How did mill reply to the objection that utalitarianism is too demanding
Too demanding to be constantly thinking and acting for the general interests of society
Reply:
This confuses the rule which guides action with the motivation for right action. Right action can be done for many motives.
32
How did mill reply to the objection "think abotut everyone" in utalitarianism
Reply: Most of the time you just need to think about the particular people involved. Exceptional occasions where you will be required to consider the public more generally.
33
How did mill reply to the objection "not enough time" in utilitarianism
Reply: We have already been doing the calculation, we have the whole history of experience to draw on. And this is why it is good to train people in moral decision making.
34
What is the surprising claim (animal)
We have strong moral reasons to not cause intense pain to animals but we do not have strong moral reasons to not kill animals
35
What is an argument against the surprising claim
Harman argues that the surprising claim (SC) is false
In the SC what makes (a) We have strong moral reasons to not cause intense pain to animals is that animals have moral status.
36
What is her argument that SC is false
1. strong moral reasons against causing intense pain to animals (which have moral status)
2. part of the reason that is true is because it is impermissible to harm something with moral status
3. painlessly killing a healthy animal harms the animal
4. Given 1-4 painlessly killing a healthy animal is impermissible
5. SC is false
37
Name the 3 views that might support SC
View 1 - Killing an Animal Does Not Harm It
Killing is bad for animals but it does not harm them
‘a being is harmed when it undergoes something this is in itself bad, but a being is not typically harmed when it is merely prevented from something good’ (NIP 717)
On this view premise 3 of her argument is false. Painless death does not harm the animal
View 2 - Death is Not Bad for Animals Because Animals Lack Sufficient Psychological Connection With Their Futures
More precisely:
Death is bad because it frustrates desires and plans
Animals don’t have plans and desires for the future
Therefore animal deaths aren’t bad for them
View 3 - McMahan’s Time-Relative Interests View
Jeff McMahan
Some reasons against killings but not strong reasons
‘badness of death […] is not simply a function what the being loses out in dying […] rather it also matters what the being’s psychological relationship is with its potential future life’ (NIP 719).
Animals have some connection to their future so killing them is bad. But they don’t have a strong connection so they don’t have a strong interest in continuing to live
So painless killing is a minor harm
38
What does the time relative interest view imply
Greater connection to nearer to future and less even insignificant connection to farther future life
2 cases of Billy and Tommy
39
What is marquis assumption about moral permissibility of abortion ?
Moral permissibility of abortion depends on the moral status of the fetus (that is the assumption Marquis goes from)
40
Why do some moral arguments against abortion focus on the characteristics of the fetus?
Some moral arguments against abortion claim that certain characteristics of a fetus (such as being a potential person, having a heartbeat, or the capacity for pain) are morally significant. These characteristics provide reasons why terminating the fetus is considered morally wrong. The arguments hinge on defining what characteristics give the fetus moral status and rights.
41
Q: What does Marquis believe is crucial to solving the problem of understanding why ending the life of a human being is wrong?
Marquis believes that solving the problem will come down to understanding the reason why ending the life of a human being is wrong.
42
What does the loss of one's life deprive a person of, according to Marquis?
The loss of one's life deprives a person of all the experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments that would have constituted their future. Marquis argues that inflicting this loss is ultimately what makes killing wrong.
43
What are Marquis' two key considerations supporting his view on the wrongness of killing?
1) Killing is one of the worst crimes. 2) People who are dying are especially sad about their loss of future.
44
Why is Marquis' argument not restricted to biological humans?
Marquis' argument applies to any beings with a future like ours, including extraterrestrial life and animals.
45
What does the value of a future-like-ours argument show about abortion?
It shows that abortion is prima facie wrong, not that it is wrong in any and all circumstances. Marquis believes that morally permissible abortions will be rare.
45
How does Marquis' argument view euthanasia and infanticide?
Marquis' argument does not necessarily see euthanasia as wrong if a person does not have a valuable future. Infanticide, however, is considered morally wrong.
46
What are the rival accounts that might have different outcomes for the abortion debate?
The Discontinuation Account and the Desire Account.
47
What is the Desire Account?
The Desire Account proposes that what makes killing wrong is that it interferes with the fulfillment of a strong and fundamental desire to live.
47
What is the Discontinuation Account?
The Discontinuation Account suggests that what makes killing wrong is the discontinuation of experience for the victim.
47
How does the Discontinuation Account relate to people who are asleep?
It relates by suggesting that even sleeping people desire their lives because of the goods in it, focusing on the future value of life rather than past experiences.
48
Why does the Discontinuation Account break down into the future-like-ours argument?
It breaks down into the future-like-ours argument because it emphasizes that our past experiences don’t make killing wrong, but rather it’s the value of a human future.
49
Does the future-like-ours argument provide the sole reason that killing is wrong?
No, it is not the sole reason killing is wrong; it applies to both people with and without valuable futures.
50
What difficulty arises in the essay's analysis regarding the immorality of contraception?
The analysis faces difficulty if contraception is deemed seriously immoral because it deprives us of one future of value, not two. The argument is that there's no nonarbitrarily identifiable subject of the loss in the case of contraception.
51
How is abortion morally compared to the killing of an innocent human child in the argument?
Abortion is considered morally the same as the killing of an innocent human child. The argument focuses on general cases, not hard ones.
52
Why do you need a moral principle that connects the characterization of the fetus to the moral judgment?
To determine why it is wrong to kill a human adult, which is based on the loss of the future and all potential good it entails. Therefore, it is also wrong to kill children, infants, and fetuses.
53
What are the objections to the discontinuation of experiences and the frustration of a desire to live?
The objections question what is wrong in the discontinuation of experiences and the frustration of a desire to live. Both objections ultimately come back to future experiences.
54
What can ethics help us with
Ethics can help us answer difficult moral questions through simplifying examples.
Ethics can help us answer difficult moral questions through the consideration of analogous cases.
Ethics can help us answer difficult moral questions through the introduction and refinement of moral principles.
55
What is a common defense of abortion
Most abortion arguments of one kind or another rely on arguing about the status of the fetus
56
What does JJT leave aside in the argument that rely on the status of the fetus ?
The argument that the status of the fetus
57
How does the argument about the rights of the fetus and the woman run according to JJT?
The argument claims that persons have a right to life, and a woman has a right over her body. However, the person’s right to life is considered more weighty than the woman’s right to her bodily autonomy. Therefore, we can’t kill the fetus, leading to the conclusion that no abortion should be allowed.
58
Which right is seen as more significant in the argument about abortion?
| according to jJK
The right to life of the fetus is seen as more significant than the woman's right to bodily autonomy. The argument claims the right to life wins.
59
What is the violonist hypothethical
It mimics the situation of a pregnant woman and a fetus, highlighting the conflict between the right to life and the right to bodily integrity/autonomy. Both parties are innocent, like the fetus and the pregnant woman.
60
What question does Thomson ask in the "Violinist" thought experiment?
Thomson asks whether it is morally required for you to stay connected to the violinist for nine months, presenting a choice between your right to bodily autonomy and the violinist's right to life.
61
What does the "Violinist" thought experiment challenge?
It challenges the standard argument that the fetus's right to life always outweighs the woman's right to bodily autonomy, by highlighting the conflict between the right to life and the right to bodily integrity/autonomy.
62
What is the main point of Thomson's "Violinist" thought experiment?
To illustrate that the fetus's right to life may not always trump the woman's right to control her own body, and to question the fairness of such a standard.
63
How does Judith Jarvis Thomson's thought experiment on being kidnapped resemble a situation of rape in the context of abortion?
It suggests that persons have a right to life regardless of how they came into existence, including cases of rape. It challenges the notion that those conceived via rape have lesser value or rights.
64
What is the 'Extreme View' on abortion when the mother's life is at stake?
The 'Extreme View' holds that both mother and child have a right to life, but it is wrong to perform an abortion because it involves directly killing the child rather than letting the mother die.
65
According to Thomson, what can a mother do if her life is threatened by an unborn child?
Thomson argues that a woman can defend her life against the threat posed by the unborn child, even if it results in the child's death. This refutes the 'Extreme View' of abortion.
66
How does the 'Extreme View' of abortion become challenged by Thomson's argument?
Thomson's argument suggests that since the mother has a right to defend her life, the 'Extreme View' that abortion is never permissible is false, and this gives a third party reason to favor the woman's right to bodily autonomy.
67
What example does Thomson use to illustrate her point about bodily autonomy and life-threatening situations?
Thomson uses the example of freezing weather and Jones' coat to illustrate that a woman has the right to defend her bodily autonomy by saying, "This body is my body."
68
What example does Thomson use to question the right to life when it requires someone else's body?
She uses the example of needing Henry Fonda’s cool hand on her fevered brow, or the violinist who has no right to the continued use of your kidneys
68
What does Thomson challenge about the right to life?
She challenges the idea that the right to life is unproblematic, suggesting it has limits and doesn’t guarantee the right to use another person’s body.
68
What does Thomson assert about the right to life?
She asserts that the right to life consists not in the right not to be killed, but rather in the right not to be killed unjustly.
69
What analogy does Thomson use to question responsibility for the presence of the fetus?
She uses the analogy of a burglar entering through open windows to show that even if the woman took steps to prevent pregnancy, it doesn’t necessarily grant the fetus the right to stay.
70
What is the "people seed" example by Judith Jarvis Thomson?
The "people seed" example asks if a person-plant that develops inside your house (despite efforts to keep it out) has a right to use your house. Thomson argues it does not, similar to how a fetus does not have an inherent right to a woman's body despite voluntary actions that led to pregnancy.
71
How does Thomson challenge the idea that avoiding pregnancy through extreme measures is valid?
She argues that it’s unreasonable to expect someone to avoid pregnancy from rape by having a hysterectomy or never leaving home without a reliable army, highlighting the absurdity of such expectations.
72
What does Thomson say about a hypothetical short, non-threatening pregnancy?
If pregnancy lasted only an hour and posed no threat, it might be indecent for a woman to refuse to carry it. However, refusing would still not be unjust.
73
What is Thomson's stance on Good Samaritans and abortion laws?
Thomson argues that women are legally required to be Good Samaritans through abortion laws, unlike men. This discrepancy is an injustice.
74
What is Thomson's overall argument about abortion?
Thomson argues that abortion is not impermissible and is context-dependent. She supports the right to evacuate the womb but not the right to secure the death of the unborn child.
75
How does Thomson's "Violinist" analogy conclude about unplugging versus direct killing?
Thomson argues that while you can unplug yourself from the violinist (representing abortion), you cannot take actions that directly kill him, should he live after being unplugged (representing ensuring the fetus's death). This emphasizes the right to bodily autonomy over the right to life.
76
What do Thomson's arguments stress in "A Defense of Abortion"?
Thomson's arguments stress bodily integrity and self-ownership. If we accept these premises, fetuses can only use women's bodies with their consent. Implicit in this argument is a point about gender equality: we do not compel people (men or women) to donate their bodies even in extreme need, so why compel only women?
77
# ```
What does Thomson ask about the 'right to life' in relation to abortion being wrong?
Thomson asks how we get from the 'right to life' to 'abortion is wrong'. She proposes a thought experiment showing you are not morally obligated to let a violinist use your body for life support, emphasizing that 'right to life' doesn't come in degrees.
78
What is Thomson's view on abortion in the case of a threat to the mother’s life?
Thomson argues that the mother has a right to protect herself. Abortion in this case is not wrong because it directly involves killing the child instead of letting the mother die. This does not follow from the supposition that a fetus has a right to life.
79
What does having a 'right to life' mean according to Thomson?
: Having a 'right to life' does not mean having the right to use someone else's body to stay alive. It also does not imply having the right to use another's body without their permission.
80
What analogy does Thomson use to illustrate her point about using another’s body?
Thomson uses the analogy of a burglar entering through open windows, even though one took precautions. The burglar does not have a right to stay in the house, similarly, the fetus does not have a right to stay in the woman's body without her consent.
81
According to Thomson, would abortion always be permissible?
Not if the fetus can survive outside the womb. Thomson argues that abortion is context-dependent and the right to bodily autonomy does not mean the right to secure the death of the fetus.
82
What informs Nietzsche's project in critiquing moral values?
Nietzsche's project is informed by philology and is broadly an etymological and anthropological project, but it is performed conceptually with an aphoristic style.
83
What types of moral values does Nietzsche believe need to be critiqued?
Nietzsche believes we need to critique Master and Slave Morality, particularly in Aristocratic Societies.
84
How does Nietzsche suggest we perform the critique of moral values
Nietzsche says we need knowledge of the conditions and circumstances in which these values grew, evolved, and changed.
85
What are the conceptual roles/functions of morality according to Nietzsche?
Morality can be seen as Consequence, Symptom, Mask, Tartufferie (hypocrisy), Illness, Misunderstanding, Cause, Remedy, Stimulant, Restraint, and Poison.
86
How do Aristocratic societies relate to Nietzsche's critique of moral values?
Aristocratic societies' stratification creates a 'Pathos of Distance' that develops into master and slave morality.
86
What is the 'will to power' according to Nietzsche?
The 'will to power' is a fundamental drive that underlies all life. It's partly a metaphysical claim and partly a natural claim, suggesting that exploitation is an essential function of life and a consequence of the will to power, which is ultimately the will to life.
86
What is the 'Pathos of Distance' according to Nietzsche?
The 'Pathos of Distance' is created in aristocratic societies due to ingrained stratification, leading to the development of master and slave morality.
87
What are the key characteristics of Master Morality and Slave Morality?
Master Morality pairs 'Good/Bad,' where 'Masters' are strong, noble, virtuous, and value-creating. Slave Morality pairs 'Good/Evil,' where 'Slaves' are weak, ignoble, passive, and value-receiving. These dichotomies arise from the moralizing of masters and slaves.
88
What is the 'Pathos of Distance' in Nietzsche's philosophy?
The 'Pathos of Distance' arises from aristocratic societies with ingrained stratification. It reflects a craving for ever-widening distances within the soul, leading to the development of master and slave morality.
| (2)
89
What does Nietzsche believe about the value of values?
Nietzsche argues that value does not exist inherently in the world; rather, it is something we bestow. Nature is value-less, and only we have created the world of values that concern humanity.
90
What are 'Negative Virtues' according to Nietzsche, and what is his stance on them?
'Negative Virtues' are virtues that involve self-denial or negation. Nietzsche criticizes these, preferring life-affirming virtues that enhance human potential and refinement.
91
What is the difference between life affirmation and life denial in Nietzsche's philosophy?
Life affirmation involves embracing and enhancing life and its values, while life denial involves rejecting or negating aspects of life, often seen in moralities that stress self-denial and restraint.
92
Why does Nietzsche believe we need a critique of moral values?
Nietzsche argues that we need a critique of moral values to understand their conceptual roles and functions, what they do for us, and importantly, what they do to us. He suggests we need knowledge of the conditions and circumstances under which these values grew and evolved.
