ethnic differences in achievement

Question 1

Ethnic differences

Answer 1

On average, white and Asians do better then blacks.

Question 2

External factors: CD, intellectual and linguistic skills

Answer 2

Cultural deprivation theorists see the lack of intellectual and linguistic skills as a major cause of underachievement for many minority children. Children from low-income families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences: poorly equipped for school, unable to develop reasoning and problem-solving skills. Bereiter and Engelmann: language spoken by low-income black American families is inadequate for educational success. Children who don’t speak English at home, are held back educationally.

Question 3

External factors: CD, attitudes and values

Answer 3

Lack of motivation is a major cause of failure of black children. Most children are socialised into mainstream culture: instils ambition, competitiveness and willingness to make sacrifices necessary for long-term goals. But black children are socialised into a subculture that instils a fatalistic, ‘live for today’ attitude that does not value education.

Question 4

External factors: CD, family structure and parental support (Moynihan)

Answer 4

The failure to socialise children adequately is the result of a dysfunctional family structure. Moynihan (1965) argues many black families are headed by a lone mother, children are deprived of adequate care, due to financial struggles, in absence of male breadwinner. Having no father, means lack of role model of male achievement. Moynihan sees this as a cycle of children failing then doing the same as parents themselves.

Question 5

External factors: CD, family structure and parental support (Murray)

Answer 5

(New right). A high rate of lone parenthood and lack of positive male role models lead to underachievement of some minorities.

Question 6

External factors: CD, family structure and parental support (Scruton)

Answer 6

Low achievement levels of some ethnic minorities are results of a failure to embrace mainstream British culture.

Question 7

External factors: CD, (pryce), what is the difference in black caribbean and asian response to racism?

Answer 7

He claims Asians are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to racism and gives them a greater sense of self-worth. Black Caribbean culture is less cohesive and resistant to racism: black pupils have low self-esteem and underachieve. This is because of the impact of colonialism on the 2 groups. The experience of slavery was culturally devastating for blacks; being transported and sold into slavery, losing language, religion and family systems, whereas Asian family structures were not destroyed by colonial rule.

Question 8

External factors: CD, fathers, gangs and culture (Sewell)

Answer 8

Against Murray, it is not the absence of fathers, it is lack of fatherly nurturing or ‘tough love’ (firm, fair, respectful and non-abusive disciplines). Black boys finding it harder to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence. Street gangs of other fatherless boys offer black boys ‘perverse loyalty and love’: present boys with a media-inspired role model of anti-school black masculinity. Felt barrier to success was pressure from other boys. Speaking in standard English and doing well was seen as ‘selling out’ to white establishment. Black boys need greater expectations, to raise aspiration.

Question 9

External factors: CD, fathers, gangs and culture criticism (Gillborn)

Answer 9

It is not peer pressure but institutional racism within the education system itself that reproduces failure of large numbers of black boys.

Question 10

External factors: CD, Asian families (Sewell) (Lupton)

Answer 10

Indian and Chinese pupils benefit from supportive families that have an ‘Asian work ethic’ and place high value on education. Lupton argues that adult authority in Asian families is similar to the model that operate in schools, she found that respectful behaviour towards adults was expected from children: knock-on effect in school, parents are more supportive.

Question 11

External factors: CD, white wc families (McCulloch) (Lupton) (Evans)

Answer 11

McCulloch found ethnic minority pupils are more likely to aspire to go to university than white British pupils, this may be due to lack of parental support. Lupton found teachers reported poorer levels of behaviours and discipline in the white wc schools, despite the fact that they had fewer children on free school meals; teachers blamed this on lower levels of parental support and negative attitudes. Ethnic minority parents saw education as a ‘way up in society’. Evans: street culture in white wc areas is brutal and young, intimidation and this is brought into school= disruption.

Question 12

External factors: CD, compensatory education

Answer 12

Main policy used to tackle cultural deprivation is compensatory education: Operation Head Start, in the USA was used to compensate children for the cultural deficit that they are said to suffer because of deprived backgrounds.

Question 13

External factors: criticisms of CD (Driver)

Answer 13

Cultural deprivation theory ignores positive effects of ethnicity on achievement, the black Caribbean family , is far from dysfunctional and provides women with positive role models of strong independent women, why black girls tend to be more successful in education than boys.

Question 14

External factors: criticisms of CD (Lawrence)

Answer 14

Challenges Pryce’s view that black pupils fail because their culture is weak and they lack self-esteem; he argues black pupils under-achieve not because of low-self esteem but racism.

Question 15

External factors: criticisms of CD (Keddie)

Answer 15

Sees CD as a victim-blaming explanation, she argues that ethnic minority children are culturally different, not culturally deprived, they under-achieve because schools are ethnocentric.

Question 16

External factors: criticisms of compensatory education

Answer 16

They see it as an attempt to impose the dominant white culture on children who have a coherent culture of their own. 2 alternatives could be multicultural education and anti-racist education.

Question 17

External factors: MD (Palmer)

Answer 17

Ethnic minorities are more likely to face these problems (lack of physical necessities). Almost half of all ethnic minority children live in low-income families, 1/4 of white children, ethnic minorities are almost twice as likely to be unemployed, ethnic minority household are around 3 times more likely to be homeless. Ethnic minorities are more likely to be engaged in shift work, Bangladeshi and Pakistani women are more likely to be engaged in low-paid homeworking.

Question 18

External factors: reasons for MD

Answer 18

Many live in economically depressed areas with high unemployment and low wage rates, cultural factors such as tradition of purdah in some Muslim households, prevents women from working outside the home, lack of language skills and foreign qualification effecting UK employers and racial discrimination in labour market and housing market.

Question 19

External factors: MD, free school meals

Answer 19

Such inequalities are reflected in proportion of children from different ethnic backgrounds who are eligible for free school meals. Bangladeshi and black African are most likely to be entitled to free school meals.

Question 20

External factors: does class override ethnicity

Answer 20

If we fail to take the different class positions of ethnicity groups into account, there is a danger we may over-estimate effect of cultural deprivation and under-estimate effect of poverty and material deprivation. However even those Indian and Chinese pupils are materially deprived, still do better than most. Material deprivation and social class factors do not completely override the influence of ethnicity. Modood: the effects of low income were much less for ethnic groups than for white pupils.

Question 21

External factors: racism in wider society

Answer 21

Poverty itself is the product of another factor: racism. Mason puts it ‘discrimination is a continuing and persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s citizens of minority ethnic origin’. Rex shows how racial discrimination leads to social exclusion and worsens the poverty faced by ethnic minorities: housing and employment.

Question 22

Internal factors (Gillborn and Mirza)

Answer 22

In one local education authority, black children were the highest achievers on entry to primary school, yet by GCSE, they had the worst results.

Question 23

Internal factors: labelling and teacher racism

Answer 23

Interactionists focus on the different labels teachers give to children from different ethnic backgrounds, their studies show that teachers often see black and Asian pupils as being far from the ‘ideal pupil’. Black pupils are seen as disruptive and Asians as passive.

Question 24

Internal factors: black pupils and discipline (Gillborn and Youdell)

Answer 24

Found that teachers were quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behaviour. This is the result of teachers’ racialised expectations, teachers expected pupils to present more discipline problems and their behaviour is deemed to be threatening or a challenge to authority, when teachers acted on this, pupils responded negatively and further conflict. Black pupils felt teachers underestimated their ability, much conflict between white teachers and black pupils stem from racial stereotypes. May explain higher level of exclusions from school of black boys.

Question 25

Internal factors: black pupils and discipline (Osler)

Answer 25

In addition to higher rates of official exclusions, black pupils appear more likely to suffer from unrecorded unofficial exclusions and from ‘internal exclusions’. They are also more likely to be placed in pupil referral units, that exclude them from access to the mainstream curriculum.

Question 26

Internal factors: black pupils and streaming (Foster)

Answer 26

Teachers stereotypes of black pupils as badly behaved could result in them being placed in lower sets than others with same ability. Can result in sfp or underachievement.

Question 26

Internal factors: black pupils and streaming (Foster)

Answer 26

Teachers stereotypes of black pupils as badly behaved could result in them being placed in lower sets than others with same ability. Can result in sfp or underachievement.

Question 27

Internal factors: Asian pupils (Wright)

Answer 27

Study of multi-ethnic primary school shows Asian pupils can also be victims of teachers’ labelling, despite schools commitment to equal opportunities, teachers hold ethnocentric views, they took for granted British culture and Standard English were superior. Teachers assumed they would have a poor grasp of English and left them out of class discussions or used simplistic language. Asian pupils felt isolated when teachers express disapproval or mispronounced their names. Teachers see them not as a threat, but a problem they can ignore. Asian girls are marginalized.

Question 28

Internal factors: pupil identities (Archer)

Answer 28

Teachers dominant discourse defines ethnic minority pupils’ identities as lacking the favored identity of the ideal pupil. The dominant discourse pupil identities: ideal pupil identity (white, mc, normal sexuality), pathologized pupil identity (an Asian, feminised identity, ‘over-achiever’, ‘deserving poor’) and demonized pupil identity (black or white wc, hyper-sexualised identity, unintelligent, peer-led, underachiever). Ethnic minority are more likely to be demonized or pathologized; black students= loud, challenging, excessively sexual and with ‘unaspirational’ home cultures. Asian girls= passive, quiet and docile.

Question 29

Internal factors: chinese pupils (Archer)

Answer 29

Even though minority students who do perform well, are still pathologized. Chinese students were simultaneously praised and viewed negatively by the teachers who saw them as passive and hardworking: educational automatons (too quiet and repressed) and boys as well to be not properly masculine. Having achieved success in the ‘wrong way’, through passive conformism and not individual ability, never legitimately be the ‘ideal pupil’. They have a ‘negative positive stereotype’. Stereotype Chinese families as ‘tight’, south Asian girls are seen as victims of oppressive family situations, wrongly stereotyped as mc. Proper achievement is seen as privilaged, white mc.

Question 30

Internal factors: pupils response and subculture (Fuller)

Answer 30

Study of group of black girls in year 11 of a London comprehensive school, girls were untypical high achievers. Instead of accepting negative stereotype, girls channeled anger of being labelled into pursuit of educational success, did not seek approval of teachers, nor limit choice of friends (friends with other black girls from lower streams). Worked accordingly to schoolwork but gave appearance of not doing so, relied on own efforts and external exams.

Question 31

Internal factors: pupil responses and subcultures (Mac an Ghaill)

Answer 31

Study of black and Asian A level students, students who believed teachers labelled the, didn’t accept label. They responded depending on things like their ethnic group and gender. Some girls felt their experience of attending an all-girls school gave them a greater academic commitment that helped overcome negative labels. This shows a label does not inevitably produce a sfp.

Question 32

Internal factors: failed strategies for avoiding racism (mirza)

Answer 32

Studied ambition black girls who faced teacher racism. Racist teachers discouraged black pupils from being ambitious through advice and option choices. Types of teacher racism: colour-blind (teachers who believe equality, but let racism go unchallenged), liberal chauvinists (teachers who believe black pupils are culturally deprived, low expectations) and overt racists (teachers who believe blacks are inferior and actively discriminate). Pupils tried to avoid effects of teachers negative attitudes, choosing particular staff, not taking part. These strategies put them at a disadvantage.

Question 33

Internal factors: variety of boys responses (Sewell)

Answer 33

He identifies the rebels (most visible and influential, only a small minority, excluded from school, rejected both the goals and rules of the school, opposition, anti-school), the conformists (largest, keen to succeed, accepted schools goals, friends from different ethnic groups), the reatreatists (tiny minority of isolated individuals, disconnected and despised by rebels) and the innovators (second largest, pro-education but anti-school, valued success, did not seek approval of teachers and conformed only to schoolwork). Teachers see all black boys as the ‘black macho led’, the rebels = underachievement. Sewell argues factors external to school are more important (peers, father).

Question 34

Internal factors: evaluation of labelling and pupil responses

Answer 34

Rather than blaming childs home background, labelling theory shows how teachers stereotypes can be a cause of failure. Danger of seeing these stereotypes as simply product of individual teachers’ prejudice, rather than of racism as a whole operates. Assumes once labelled, pupils automatically all victim to sfp and fail (Mirzas study shows against this)

Question 35

Internal factors: individual and institutional racism (Troyna and Williams)

Answer 35

They argue we must look at how schools and colleges routinely and unconsciously discriminate against ethnic minorities, individual is results from the prejudice view of individual teachers and institutional is discrimination built up in the way schools and colleges operate.

Question 36

Internal factors: critical race theory

Answer 36

Sees racism as an ingrained feature of society, means it involves not just intentional actions of individuals but, institutional racism (less overt, more subtle and less identifiable)

Question 37

Internal factors: critical race theory and locked-in inequality (Roithmayr) (Gillborn)

Answer 37

The scale of historical discrimination is so large, that there no longer needs to be any conscious intent to discriminate, inequality is self-perpetuating (feeds on itself). Gillborn applies it to education, he ethnic inequality as “so deep rooted and so large that it is a practically inevitable feature of the education system”.

Question 38

Internal factors: marketisation and segregation (Gillborn)

Answer 38

Argues marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils, allows negative stereotypes to influence decisions about school admissions. Supported by Moore and Davenports american research: shows how selection procedures lead to ethnic segregation, with minority pupils failing to get into better secondary schools due to discrimination. These procedures favored white pupils and disadvantaged ethnic minority.

Question 39

Internal factors: ethnocentric curriculum

Answer 39

An attitude or police that gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of one particular ethnic group. A prime example of institutional racism because it builds a racial bias into everyday workings. Shown in languages, literature and music and history. In history, British are represented to bring civilization to the ‘primitive’ people they colonized. This image of black people as inferior undermines black children’s self-esteem and leads to failure. It is not clear what impact the ethnocentric curriculum has.

Question 40

Internal factors: assessment (Gillborn)

Answer 40

‘Assessment game’ is rigged, to validate he dominant cultures superiority. If black children succeed as a group, rules will be changed to cause failure. Change from ‘baselines assessments’ to foundation stage profile to measure pupils ability in primary school showed black underachievement, because the fsp was based on teachers judgements and a change in timing of assessment from start to end of year.

Question 41

Internal factors: access to opportunities

Answer 41

The gifted and talented programme, was created with aim of meeting the needs of more able pupils in inner-city schools. Whites were over twice as more likely to be identified as gifted and talented than black Caribbean. And exam tiers, found that in 30 schools, ‘aiming high’ initiative to raise black Caribbean pupils achievement, blacks were more likely to be entered for low tier GCSE, they can only achieve a grade c at best.

Question 42

Internal factors: the ‘new IQism’

Answer 42

Access to opportunities such as higher sets or gifted and talented programme, depended heavily on teacher assessment of pupils ability, works against black pupils. Teachers place students in sets on disciplinary concerns and perceptions on ‘attitude’. Teachers and policymakers make false assumptions about the nature of pupils ‘ability’ or ‘potential’. They believe potential is a fixed quality, that’s easily measured, for Gillborn there’s no genuine measure of ‘potential’.

Question 43

Internal factors: criticisms of Gillborn

Answer 43

Sewell rejects internal factors of education system is the main cause, he argues it is not powerful enough to prevent success, we need to focus on external factors (anti-school attitudes, father). If Indian and Chinese over-achieve and do so well, how is institutional racism a thing? Gillborn argues the image of them as ‘model minorities’ performs an ideological function conceals the fact that the education system is racist. Makes it seem fair and meritocratic, justifies failure of other minorities.