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1
Q

What is the species-area relationship?

A

The principle that larger geographical areas contain more species.

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2
Q

What is the Shannon Index?

A

A measure of species diversity that accounts for both abundance and evenness.

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3
Q

What is the Congruence Hypothesis?

A

The idea that different taxa show similar patterns of biodiversity across regions.

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4
Q

What is the Fragmentation Hypothesis?

A

The idea that habitat fragmentation reduces biodiversity by isolating populations.

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5
Q

Why is behaviour difficult to study in evolutionary terms?

A

Because behaviour does not fossilize.

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6
Q

What must a trait have for natural selection to act upon it?

A

A genetic basis.

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7
Q

What is an example of innate behaviour in animals?

A

Eel migration, as they navigate without learning from parents.

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8
Q

What gene in mice affects maternal behaviour?

A

fosB gene.

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9
Q

What is the function of the per gene in Drosophila?

A

It controls circadian rhythm and mating song timing.

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10
Q

What happens when the per+ gene is transferred between Drosophila species?

A

The recipient exhibits the mating song of the donor species.

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11
Q

What does artificial selection show about behaviour?

A

That behaviours such as migration or mating speed can be inherited and selected for.

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12
Q

What is genetic determinism?

A

The idea that genes fully determine physical, emotional, and behavioural traits.

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13
Q

What do twin studies suggest about genetic determinism?

A

That traits are not fully genetically determined, since heritability is never 100%.

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14
Q

How can behavioural evolution in extinct humans be studied?

A

Through the analysis of tool use and refinement.

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15
Q

What are gnathostomes?

A

Vertebrates with jaws.

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16
Q

What are tetrapods?

A

Gnathostomes with limbs and feet.

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17
Q

What are amniotes?

A

Tetrapods with eggs adapted for land.

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18
Q

What defines mammals?

A

Amniotes with hair and that lactate.

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19
Q

What are primates?

A

Eutherians with grasping hands/feet, no claws, large brain, short jaws, stereo vision.

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20
Q

When did hominins and panins start to diverge?

A

Around 7 million years ago.

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21
Q

How do human skulls differ from chimpanzee skulls?

A

Humans have a steep forehead, flat face, small canines; chimpanzees have a low forehead, projecting face, large canines.

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22
Q

What anatomical feature supports bipedalism in humans?

A

Positioning of the foramen magnum.

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23
Q

Name three early hominin species.

A

Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Orrorin tugenensis, Ardipithecus ramidus.

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24
Q

What is significant about Australopithecus garhi?

A

It had large teeth (‘megadont’) and shows first known tool use.

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25
What were the early atmospheric compounds on Earth?
Water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, CO₂, phosphate.
26
What are possible energy sources for early organic molecule formation?
Lightning, UV radiation, volcanic activity.
27
What is the bubble hypothesis?
Suggests oily bubbles formed membranes that allowed organic molecules to develop and replicate.
28
What is the clay hypothesis?
Silicate crystals in clay attracted and organized organic molecules, possibly aiding replication.
29
What is exogenesis?
Theory that organic compounds came to Earth via comets.
30
Why could comets carry organic molecules?
They are coated in 'tar'-like substances and preserve volatiles due to low solar heat.
31
What is the difference in tooth structure between humans and chimpanzees?
Humans have small canines and large molars; chimpanzees have large canines and small molars.
32
What does the arrangement of the pelvis in Australopithecus suggest?
That it was fully bipedal.
33
When were the earliest Australopithecus fossils discovered?
In 1974.
34
What does the term 'megadont' refer to in hominin evolution?
It refers to large teeth as seen in Australopithecus garhi.
35
What is the significance of oily bubbles in the bubble hypothesis?
They form primitive membranes that protect and concentrate organic molecules.
36
What role do silicate crystals play in the clay hypothesis?
They provide a surface for organic molecules to align and potentially replicate.
37
How does the clay hypothesis explain molecular replication?
Silicate crystals may impose a structure that aids in replication acting as a scaffold.
38
Why are organic molecules thought to be common in space?
Because comets and space dust contain complex carbon-based compounds.
39
Why are transgenic experiments important in behavioural genetics?
They show how specific genes can affect behaviours like circadian rhythm in Drosophila.
40
What effect does the per gene have on Drosophila mating behaviour?
It affects the timing and rhythm of their mating song.
41
How does natural selection act on behaviour?
By favoring genes that result in beneficial behavioural phenotypes.
42
What does artificial selection of blackcaps show about migration?
That migratory behaviour has a heritable genetic component.
43
What are the two things that a definition for a living system must include?
1. A metabolism 2. Hereditary replication (a system of copying in which the new structure resembles the old)
44
Who discovered 'nuclein'
Miescher
45
Who discovered Bacterial transformation
Frederick Griffith
46
How was DNA identified as the material of inheritance?
Using the principles of bacterial transformation
47
What is 'Chargaff's Rule'
A=T and G=C
48
X-ray diffraction
DNA has 2 periodicities
49
What is a Nucleotide composed of in DNA
Phosphate + sugar + one nitrogenous base
50
Bases are either:
pyrimidines (C + T) or purines (G + A)
51
What does each end of a DNA strand have?
The 5' (Prime) end - free phosphate The 3' end - free sugar
52
DNA replication is...
semiconservative - Each strand of the original molecule remains intact and serves as the template for the synthesis of a complementary strand
53
How can all DNA be replicated during meiosis/mitosis
Replication occurs simultaneously at several points along the DNA strand
54
To sustain life, DNA must be able to:
Be repaired, Be expressed and regulated.
55
Why does DNA need repair mechanisms?
Mutagens and replication errors
56
What is DNA proofreading
Corrects errors during replication - corrects orientation of the new nucleotide to the hydroxyl group
57
What is mismatch repair
Corrects errors after replication is complete - deformity in secondary structure recognized
58
What is a gene?
A unit of DNA which performs one function
59
In order to provide useful function, a gene needs to be...
Regulated
60
How does RNA differ from DNA
Ribose instead of deoxyribose, Uracil instead of thymine.
61
How is DNA 'read'
By RNA in groups of 3 nucleotides
62
What does a gene consist of?
A series of codons which are read sequentially from a starting point at one end to a termination point at the other
63
How many of the possible 64 codons can be stop codons?
3
64
The genetic code is...
Redundant
65
In Transcription, a double stranded DNA is 'cut' into a...
Single strand of DNA
66
What does the promotor sequence do?
Tells the RNA polymerase where to start
67
What does the terminator sequence do?
Tells the RNA polymerase where to finish
68
What are operons?
'strings' of genes that code for products that are all required as part of a chemical pathway
69
How is each operon regulated
Regulated by one single promoter and operator mechanism
70
At what level does gene regulation in Eubacteria/Archaea occur?
Transcription level
71
What is chromatin?
Nuclear DNA and associated proteins
72
When do Chromosomes as structures emerge?
During cell replication
73
Mitosis
1 x 2N -> 2 X 2N = Cell division in non-reproductive cells
74
Meiosis
1 x 2N -> 4 x N = Production of reproductive cells (gametes)
75
What is a Chiasma
Point at which cross over occurs
76
What does Mitosis yield?
A complete replica of the DNA in the original cell
77
What does Meiosis yield?
One of each chromosome in any one gamete
78
What is the chromosomal make-up of any organism referred to as?
Karyotype
79
What are the three 'chromosomes' organisms have?
A chromosome
80
What is Ploidy
The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell
81
What is polyploidy
Anything more than 2 sets
82
What is the definition of the genome
The total DNA in any single cell of an organism
83
What are the Extranuclear/Organellar DNA
Mitochondrial and chloroplast
84
How is Genome size measured?
By the number of nucleotides the DNA of that organism is made up of
85
What is the C-value paradox?
The amount the DNA an organism has does not reflect its evolutionary history or any other obvious feature
86
What do introns allow?
Allow alternative splicing
87
What are telomers?
Long repetitive sequences afford important 'protection' from inevitable loss of sequences at the end of chromosomes during replication
88
What are transposable elements?
Sequences of DNA that can incorporate themselves into different parts of the genome
89
What are the two categories of transposable elements?
Transposons and Retrotransposons
90
What is a genetic mutation?
An inherited change in genetic information
91
What can cause a genetic mutation
Copying errors, Exposure to radiation or chemicals, Viruses or virus-like sequences.
92
What are the three main classes of mutations
Point mutations - change in a single nucleotide Chromosomal mutations - eliminate, duplicate, or rearrange segments. Whole genome events - duplication of entire genomes
93
What are the three types of point mutations?
Substitutions, deletions, insertions.
94
How are chromosomal rearrangements caused?
When chromosomal alignment and pairing during meiosis malfunctions
95
What are discrete genetic characters?
Those that show a limited number of distinct categories
96
What is a phenotype
The outward, physical appearance of a trait.
97
What is a character?
A heritable feature
98
What is a trait?
A variant if each character
99
What is a genotype
The coded, inheritable information in an organisms DNA.
100
What is Mendel's Law of Segregation?
The two alleles at any one locus in a diploid individual separate during gamete formation. Each one has equal probability of ending up in the resulting gametes
101
What is Mendel's law of independent assortment?
Each pair of alleles at any one locus segregates independently of other pairs of alleles at other loci
102
Alleles from loci that are located close together on the same chromosome are ___ likely to be 'split' apart by crossing over and recombination
Less
103
What is cytoplasmic inheritance
Some traits are inherited from organellar DNA
104
What is meiotic drive
Any process which causes some genetic variants to be over-represented in the gametes which are formed during meiosis
105
What are Polygenic/Quantitive characters
Individual heritable characters that are often controlled by groups of several genes
106
What is Phenotypic plasticity?
When a genotype expresses different phenotypes depending on the environment
107
Standard genetic variation
Presence of alternative forms of a gene (alleles)
108
Evolution is limited by standing variation until
New mutations accumulate
109
What is heritability?
The proportion of phenotypic variation (Vp) that is due to gentic

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