Evolution of Land Plants Flashcards
(191 cards)
1
Q
What is the Latin name for the plant kingdom?
A
Plantae
2
Q
What is the name for land plants?
A
Embryophytes
3
Q
What is the name for chlorophytes, charophytes and other green algae and land plants?
A
Viridiplantae
4
Q
How many species of land plants are there?
A
350-400,000 species
5
Q
What is the name for flowering plants?
A
Angiosperms
6
Q
What is symbiosis?
A
A mutualistic or common relationship between plants and other organisms such as algae or fungi
7
Q
What are some benefits of symbiosis?
A
Nutrition Disease prevention Pollination Seed dispersal Habitat
8
Q
What did plants descend from?
A
Heterotrophic eukaryotes, which engulfed a cyanobacterium and underwent primary endosymbiosis, forming red and green algae
9
Q
What are the closest relatives to land plants?
A
Chara
Coleochaete
10
Q
What are the features of Chara and Coleochaete that make them similar and different to land plants?
A
They have parenchymatous bodies (basic tissue of plants) that grow by an apical meristem (rapidly dividing cells at the of shoot and root). However, they have haplontic life cycles
11
Q
What is a haplontic lifecycle?
A
Exist as a haploid being most of the time. Gametes are haploid and produced by mitosis. They fuse to form a diploid zygote, but this zygote divides by meiosis straight away. No mitosis in diploid phase
12
Q
What type of life cycle do all land plants have?
A
Haplodiplontic
13
Q
What is a haplodiplontic life cycle?
A
The plant undergoes both haploid and diploid mitosis - multicellular diploid and haploid stages occur, and meiosis is ‘sporic’
14
Q
What is a diplontic life cycle?
A
Mitosis only occurs in the diploid phase
Exist as a multicellular diploid being most of the time, gametes carry genetic information to the next generation. Includes animals and some fungi
15
Q
What is produced from meiosis in land plants?
A
Spores, which germinate into a haploid multicellular stage, producing gametes for sexual reproduction
16
Q
Reproduction in Chara
A
Oogmaous - large egg cells born in multicellular ‘megagametangia’ and sperm born in multicellular ‘microgametangia’
During fertilisation sterile cells around the zygote thicken to form a protective layer around the egg
17
Q
What is a gametophyte?
A
A haploid multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes - it is the sexual phase of the alternation of generations
18
Q
What is the sporophyte?
A
The asexual and diploid phase of the alternation of generation in plants. It is the dominant form in vascular plants
19
Q
What and when we the first fossil evidence of Embryophytes?
A
450 million years ago
‘Microfossils’ - spores with ‘Trilete mark’ found indicating meiotic tetrads and sporophytes
20
Q
What is a meiotic tetrad?
A
A group of four chromatids formed from each pair of homologous chromosomes that split longitudinally during the prophase of meiosis
21
Q
What was the defining feature of the microfossils?
A
Thick walls made of sporopollenin
22
Q
What was the first complete fossil, and what form of its life cycle was it in?
A
Cooksonia
Sporophyte form
23
Q
What new adaptations did plants require for the shift from aquatic lifestyle to living on land, and what forms did they come in?
A
They had to avoid desiccation
1) They needed access to water and transport of water around the plant - this came in the form of a vascular system
2) Thick coatings around spores to avoid desiccation, but still allowing gas exchange. Plants evolved stomata and waxy cuticles / sporopollenin
24
Q
What are the specialised egg-producing structures possessed by all Embryophytes?
A
Archegonia (specialised megagametangia)
25
What are transfer cells?
They line the archegonium, and are able to shuttle nutrients to the developing sporophyte embryo in the archegonium
26
What was the big change that separated land plants from their haplontic ancestors?
The mutation that caused diploid mitosis to occur - the sporophyte becomes a much bigger part of their lifecycle
27
What do all extant land plants undergo?
A heteromorphic alternation of generations - their life cycle takes them through both haploid and diploid forms
28
What are the Bryophytes?
An informal group consisting of three divisions of non-vascular land plants
29
What are the three Bryophyte divisions?
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
30
What is an example of a genus of liverworts?
Marchantia
31
What is the sperm-producing (male sex organ) structure of algae, mosses, ferns, fungi and other non-flowering plants?
Antheridium
32
What is the morphology of liverworts? (6 features)
1) Parenchymatous body
2) Very thin cuticle on upper surface
3) No stomata
4) No roots
5) No true leaves
6) No vascular system
33
What is the most primitive group of extant Embryophytes?
Liverworts
34
What reproductive structures does Marchantia (liverwort genus) possess?
Archegonium and antheridium
35
What are the two types of specialised conducting cells that mosses have?
Hydrom - dead cells which transport water and provide stem support. Found in the centre of stem
Leptom - living cells which transport photosynthate
36
What type of Bryophyte has a rudimentary transport system in advanced species?
Mosses
37
What are moss stems surrounded by?
The cortex
38
What grows from the apical meristem in gametophytes?
The gametophyte
39
What does each sporangium contain in mosses?
Many spores
40
What is a sporangium?
A receptacle in ferns and lower plants in which asexual spores and formed
41
Features of hornworts
```
Their antheridia and archegonia are buried
Cells have just one chloroplast
Symbiotic with cyanobacteria
Some species have stomata on sporophyte
No discrete sporangia
```
42
Adaptive features of Embryophytes
Archegonia
Cuticle (cutin - waxy, water-repellant substance)
Stomata
Thick-walled spores (sporopollenin)
Vascular tissue - xylem (lignin for rigidity)
43
What is the name for vascular plants?
Tracheophytes
44
What is the dominant form in tracheophytes? What is it supported by?
Sporophyte is the dominant form, supported by tracheids
45
What are tracheids?
A type of water-conducting cell in the xylem which lacks perforations in the cell wall
Thickened with lignin so provide support for stems and make wood
Present in all vascular plants
Dead cells - no protoplasm
46
What is the trend in sporophytes of tracheophytes?
They are increasingly more complex and branched
47
What genus represents a possible intermediate between Bryophytes and Tracheophytes?
Cooksonia
48
What features of Cooksonia suggest that it is an intermediate between tracheophytes and bryophytes?
They have tracheid-like thickened cells, a possible intermediate between moss hydrom cells and tracheids
Dichotomous branching sporophyte with terminal sporangia
Rhizomes
No fossil gametophytes
49
What is dichotomous branching?
The branches form as a result of equal division of a terminal bud into two equal branches
50
What are rhizomes?
Continuously growing horizontal underground stems which puts out lateral shoots and roots at intervals
51
What is protoplasm?
The colourless material comprising the living part of a call, including the cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles
52
What was one of the first tracheophytes, which was similar to Cooksonia but also possessed tracheids? When did it evolve?
Aglaophyton major
| 400 million years ago
53
What tracheophyte evolved 400 million years ago and had unequal dichotomous branching (pseudomonopodial)?
Rhynia Gwynne-vaughanii
54
What tracheophyte evolved around 400 million years ago and had lateral sporangia?
Zosterophyllum
55
What are lateral sporangia?
Sporangia placed on the side of stems
56
What are terminal sporangia?
Sporangia on the tips of stems
57
What tracheophyte evolved 390 million years ago and had a more advanced vascular system with pitted tracheids and underground branching / rhizomes?
Psilophyton dawsonii
58
How did the branching of sporophytes evolve, allowing plants to grow to much greater heights?
```
From dichotomous (equal dichotomy)
To pseudomonopodial (unequal dichotomy)
To monopodial (grows upward from a single point)
```
59
What is the stele of a plant?
The central core of the stem and root of vascular plants, composed of primary vascular tissues - the xylem and phloem
60
What are the names of the 3 arrangements of xylem and phloem within the stele?
Protostele
Siphonostele
Eustele
61
What plants have a protostele?
Early lycophytes and arthrophytes
| E.g. Cooksonia, Aglaophyton, Rhynia
62
When did the siphonostele evolve, and what plants possess it?
Evolved 395 million years ago
| Possessed by Lycophytes, Arthrophytes and ferns
63
When did the eustele evolve, and what plants possess it?
380 million years ago
| Found in advanced tracheophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms
64
What are the 5 ways a tracheid wall can thicken?
```
Annular
Helical
Scalariform
Reticulate
Pitted
```
65
Evolutionary trends in early tracheophytes
```
Increased branching of sporophytes
Increased size of sporophyte
Reduced size of gametophyte
Increased complexity of vascular system
Evolution of leaves
Evolution of roots
```
66
When did leaf-like structures and true leaves evolve?
Mid-late Devonian period
| 390-354 million years ago
67
What are microphylls?
‘Stem-hugging’ leaves with single vascular strands and no stem
68
What plants possess microphylls and what type of stele are they associated with?
Lycophytes
| They are associated with possessing protosteles
69
What are megaphylls?
Leaves with branched vascular strands and attached to the main stem by a petiole
70
What is a petiole?
The stalk that joins a leaf to a stem
71
What plants are megaphylls found in and what type of stele are they associated with?
Found in ferns and all flowering plants
| Associated with stems which have siphonostele or eustele
72
What may have been the selective force for the evolution of leaves?
Reduced CO2 levels, as plants needed a more efficient way to collect CO2 for photosynthesis when levels were lower
73
Give examples of Lycophytes
Club mosses
Spike mosses
Quillworts
74
What are features of Lycophytes?
Lateral sporangia
| Microphylls
75
What are features of Euphyllophytes?
Terminal sporangia in pairs
| megaphylls
76
What plants are Euphillophytes?
Monilophyton
| Seed plants
77
What is the Latin name for ferns?
Monilophyton
78
When did Carboniferous forests evolve?
Throughout the Devonian-late Carboniferous period (390-290 million years ago)
79
What trends occurred during the evolution of Carboniferous forests?
Sporophyte size increased dramatically
Increased branching
Increase in leaf size and number
80
Cause of trends during evolution of Carboniferous forests
1) Competition for space and light
2) Decreasing CO2 levels
3) More effective spore dispersal to moist environments
4) Avoidance of inbreeding
81
Innovations of Carboniferous forests
1) Advanced vascular systems with elaboration of siphonosteles and eusteles
2) Secondary thickening from a vascular cambium (meristem) - xylem, phloem and cortex tissues making wood
3) The evolution of ‘tree trunks’ - better support
4) Advanced branching (monopodial growth), root systems and leaves
82
What is the cambium?
A vascular meristem which allows lateral expansion of the stem through ‘secondary growth’. It predominantly produces new xylem and phloem
83
What types of steles can the cambium be associated with?
Siphonosteles and haplosteles (a type of protostele)
84
What is transpiration? What is it mainly controlled by?
The movement of water through the plant primarily in the xylem, 95% of which is controlled by stomata movements
85
What environmental signals regulate the opening and closing of stomata?
```
CO2
Humidity
Light
Water availability at soil level
Stress factors
```
86
How can you determine atmospheric CO2 levels from a plant?
Calculate the stomatal density and index
87
How are stomata closed?
A high K+ concentration in the cells surrounding the guard cells causes water to leave the guard cells by osmosis, causing them to close the stomatal pore as they lose turgidity
88
List 3 climatic factors during the Carboniferous period
1) Warm and humid, tropical climates emerge
2) Dramatic fall in CO2 levels, which is what causes the dramatic elaboration of leaves
3) More vegetation than could be decomposed - formation of coal
89
What is the name for tree lycophytes?
Clubmosses
90
Features of tree lycophytes
Advanced siphonostele with secondary thickening from vascular cambium
Most support from primary and secondary cortex
Possess strobili consisting of many sporangia situated on sporophylls
91
What is a sporophyll?
A leaf that possesses sporangia
92
What is the name for tree arthrophytes?
Horsetails
93
Features of tree arthrophytes
Advanced siphonostele with secondary thickening from vascular cambium
Lower Euphillophytes
Possess sporangiophore bearing sporangia
94
What is a Euphillophyte?
A true leaf plant
95
What is a sporangiophore?
A structure that bears one or more sporangia
96
What are tree monilophytes? (include latin name)
Ferns (pterophytes)
97
Feature of tree monilophytes
Massive primary stem - no secondary thickening
98
What height could tree lycophytes grow to? (extinct now)
35m
99
What height could tree arthrophytes grow to? (extinct now)
18m
100
What height could tree monilophytes grow to? (extinct now)
8-10m
101
Features of progymnosperms (extinct now)
Advanced eustele with secondary thickening from vascular cambium
Similar to extant gymnosperms
102
What were progymnosperms?
Woody, spore-bearing plants
| Extinct now
103
Three types of reproduction in spore forests
Homospory
Heterospory
Anisospory
104
What is homospory?
Spores of only one type produced - one type of gametophyte (with antheridia and archegonia) or two types of gametophyte (one with antheridia, one with archegonia)
105
What plants use homospory?
All bryophytes, all extant arthrophytes and most extant lycophytes and ferns
106
What is heterospory?
Spores of different types are produced from different types of sporangia - always two types of gametophytes produced
107
What plants is heterospory found in?
Many extinct lineages of lycophytes, arthrophytes, ferns, progymnosperms, some extant lycophytes and water ferns and all seed plants
108
What is anisospory? What lineages is it found in?
Large and small spores produced in the same sporangium. Only found in extinct lineages
109
Evolution of heterospory through the Devonian and Carboniferous period
Lower Devonian: small spores only
Mid Devonian: larger spores appear
Late Devonian: very large spores appear
Carboniferous: many heterosporous fossils
110
What are the 3 selective advantages of heterospory?
Resource allocation
Increased potential for outbreeding (heterosis)
Protection of gametophytes
111
How does heterospory help with resource allocation?
More nutrients for fewer, larger spores so better chance of their survival, and lots of small microspores produced so they can find the eggs in archegonia in gametophytes
112
How does heterospory help reduce inbreeding?
Aerodynamic sorting of spores - as microspores will travel further than megaspores and the gametophytes are unisexual
113
How does heterospory help with the protection of gametophytes?
It allows endosporic development - development of the gametophyte within the spore
114
What evolution is analogous to the evolution of heterospory from homospory?
The evolution of oogamy from isogamy
115
What is oogamy?
A form of anisogamy in which the female gamete is much larger than the male gamete and is non-motile
116
What is isogamy?
Sexual reproduction by the fusion of similar gametes, differing in general only in allele expression
117
What is a seed?
When the megaspore is not released and germinates inside the megasporangium to produce the female gametophyte, an ovule (seed)
118
What did seeds evolve from?
A line of heterosporous progymnosperms that retained their megaspores on the sporophyte
119
What were the possible steps in ovule evolution?
1) Free sporangia with sterile stems
2) Sterile stems cluster around the sporangium
3) Sterile stems ‘fuse’ around the sporangium with single megaspore inside (megagametophyte)
120
In a seed, how many megaspores does each megasporangium produce?
One (the other three degenerate)
121
What is the nucellus?
The central part of an ovule, containing the embryo sac
122
Seeds are a modified...
megasporangium
123
What is the structure of a seed?
The one megaspore produced germinates within the modified megasporangium (nucellus) to produce a megasporangium on the sporophyte. The nucellus and megagametophyte are enclosed and protected by layers of sporophyte tissue (integuments) and the whole structure is called an ovule
124
What are the layers of sporophyte tissue called?
Integuments
125
What are the 3 benefits of sporophytes retaining megaspores?
1) Reduces significantly the requirement for external water to fertilise eggs
2) Protection of female gametophyte and embryo sporophyte
3) Nourishment of female gametophyte and embryo sporophyte
126
When did the first seed plants appear in Carboniferous spore tree forests?
350 million years ago
127
What is a gymnosperm?
A seed plant bearing ‘naked’ ovules/seeds
128
What gymnosperm groups appeared in the Early Carboniferous period? (350 Ma)
Pteridosperms
| Cordaitales
129
What shift in plant species happened in the Early Permian period? (approx 300 Ma)
Number of gymnosperms dramatically increased.
| Pteridosperms and Cordaitales expand
130
What new groups formed in the Early Permian period?
Cycadales (cycads - stout woody trunk and stiff, evergreen leaves)
Ginkgoales (ginkgos - one extant species)
Bennettitales (extinct)
Glossopterids (extinct)
131
By when did gymnosperms make up 60% of the flora?
By the upper Permian period - 260 million years ago
132
When the supercontinent Pangaea formed, what changes did this bring about to the climate?
Widespread aridity in continental interiors
High seasonal temperature fluctuations
Equatorial aridity and monsoons
133
Why were seed plants more successful than spore plants on Pangaea?
They were better adapted to reproduction in arid conditions
134
Features of ginkgos
Appear in Early Permian period
There were over 16 genera present
Only one extant species - ginkgo tree
Stem construction similar to conifers - eustele with vascular cambium and lots of secondary xylem
135
Features of cycads
```
Appear in Early Permian period
Fossils up to 15m long
10 extant genera
100 extant species
Found in warm, tropical regions
Plants are dioecious - individuals sexually distinct
Sperm are motile
```
136
when did conifers become common?
Appear in Carboniferous period
Underwent major radiation in Triassic period
8 conifer families
137
Characteristics of conifers (10 points)
1. Arborescent (all trees)
2. Pyramidal growth form
3. Small simple ‘needle’ leaves
4. Stem composed of secondary wood due to secondary thickening
5. Tracheids frequently arranged into distinct annual rings with resin canals
6. Roots have tap-root simple branching
7. Reproductive structures are cones
8. Mostly monoecious (male and female cones on different parts of same tree)
9. Pollen with air bladders
10. Pollen produces tube to deliver non-motile sperms to ovule
138
What adaptation does the pollen of conifers have and how does it benefit the conifers?
They produce saccate pollen (with air sacs), which increases the dispersal of pollen and therefore reduces the chance of self-fertilisation
139
What do female conifer cones possess?
Ovuliferous scales - each bears two ovules
140
What is the life cycle of Pinus (genus of conifer)?
1. Naked ovule pollinated
2. The pollen consists of 3 cells: tube cell, stalk cell and body cell
3. Next spring, the pollen germinates
4. The body cell divides to make two sperm cells of equal size
5. The largest sperm cell fertilises the egg - the remaining cells degenerate
6. Next spring, the winged seeds are dispersed by the wind
141
What is pyriscence?
Some plants (including some conifer species) rely on fire to mature and disperse their seeds
142
Features of gnetales
Very derived group of gymnosperms
Poor fossil record - close to pines
All dioecious
143
What features do gnetales share with flowering plants?
Xylem contains vessels
Reproduction structures (strobili) resemble primitive flowers
Insect pollinated
Female gametophyte reduced to an ‘embryo sac’
144
What genera of Gnetales have a form of double fertilisation but no endosperm forms?
Gnetum
| Ephedra
145
When are the first Angiosperm fossils from?
Early Cretaceous period (120 Ma)
146
What part of an angiosperm were the first fossils and why?
Pollen
| Because sporopollenin is easily fossilised
147
What are the major innovations of angiosperms?
1. Ovules enclosed within a carpel / pistil
2. Presence of a ‘flower’
3. Double fertilisation
4. Presence of a double integument
5. Presence of complex pollen wall
6. Presence of xylem ‘vessels’
7. Presence of phloem companion cells
8. Net-veined leaves (eudicotyledons)
9. Fruits developing from flower parts
148
What group were thought to be the closest living relatives of angiosperms, but are dioecious so similarities are just a result of convergent evolution?
Gnetales
149
What two orders are the closest relatives to angiosperms?
Bennettitales
| Glossopterids
150
When were Bennettitales abundant, and what type of cones did they possess?
Abundant from early Triassic to late Cretaceous period
| They had bisexual cones, unlike cycads
151
When were Glossopterids abundant and what features did they have?
Dominated flora of Southern Hemisphere during the Permian period
Had advanced net-veined leaves, but unisexual cones
152
What are the reproductive structures in gymnosperms?
Unisexual cones
153
What does unisexual mean in terms of cones?
The plant either produces a male or female cone but never a cone with both male and female reproductive structures
154
What is the carpel and what is it comprised of?
Female sex organ
| Comprised of the stigma, style and ovary
155
What is the stamen and what is it comprised of?
Male sex organ
| Comprised of anther and filament
156
How is the ovule enclosed in angiosperms?
The ovule is enclosed within the carpel, surrounded by a double integument. The gametophyte is greatly reduced to only 8 cells. There are no archegonia
157
What is observed in the endosperm of angiosperms?
Triploidy, the result of a double fertilisation event. The egg is fertilised by one sperm and the two haploid maternal nuclei in the endosperm get fertiliser by the single haploid sperm nucleus
158
Describe the fight over the quantity and quality of resources that are laid down for the developing embryo in the endosperm
As there are two haploid maternal nuclei and only one haploid sperm nuclei, the final ratio gives the maternal parent more control, and they have a greater contribution to the genetic constitution of the endosperm
159
What is the collective word for the petals?
A corolla
160
What is the male gametophyte?
Two or three cells within a pollen grain
161
What did stamens evolve from?
Leaf- or petal-like structures bearing microsporangia
162
How does pollination and double fertilisation occur?
1. Pollen tube penetrates a synergid (cell in female gametophyte) and releases sperm nuclei
2. One sperm fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote
3. A second sperm fused with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm which nourishes the developing embryo sporophyte
163
What happens to the triploid endosperm following fertilisation?
The endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly to form a mass of protoplasm and nuclei without cell division. It does this by acquiring nutrients from the sporophyte. As the seed matures the endosperm undergoes cellularisation (cell walls form)
164
How do angiosperm seeds utilise maternal resources more effectively than gymnosperm seeds?
They have many fewer cells
The endosperm food reserves aren’t laid down until after fertilisation, so resources aren’t wasted on a seed that is never fertilised
165
What is a fruit?
A structure formed from part of a flower or inflorescence (the complete flower head of a plant including stems, stalks and flowers) that contains the seeds
166
What are fruits adapted to encourage?
Seed dispersal by animals
167
What are dicotyledons (dicots)?
Embryonic plants with 2 seed leaves (cotyledons)
168
What are the features of dicotyledons?
1. Leaves net-veined, opposite or alternate
2. Vascular bundles of stem arranged in circle
3. Stems often woody
4. Flower petals usually grow in multiples of 4 or 5
169
What are monocotyledons (monocots)?
Embryonic plant with 1 seed leaf (cotyledon)
170
Features of monocotyledons
1. Leaves typically parallel-veined
2. Vascular bundle of stem closed and scattered
3. No secondary thickening
4. Flower petals usually grow in multiples of 3
171
What is a Eudicotyledon (eudicot) and what pollen does it produce?
A ‘true’ dicot
| Produces pollen with 3 apertures
172
What is pollen with 3 apertures called?
A tricolpate
173
What type of pollen do monocots and primitive dicots produce?
Pollen with a single aperture - a monocolpate
174
What are the 5 primary attractants to pollinators?
```
Pollen - rich in protein, starch and fats
Nectar - sugary exudate from nectaries
Oil - fat oil from oil glands
Protection and brood-place
Sexual attraction
```
175
What are the oil glands of angiosperms called?
Elaiophores
176
What are the 4 secondary attractants of specialised plants to pollinators?
1. Odour
2. Visual attraction - colour, shape, reflection
3. Temperature
4. Motion - flickering of large influorescences
177
How can the odour of a plant attract pollinators?
Night-flowering plants use odours
‘Rotting meat’ plants attract some insects
Sex pheromones released
178
How might temperature attract pollinators?
Heliotropic (growth towards or away from sunlight) flowers in cold climates - attracts pollinators as flower is warmer than environment
179
What are the 4 adaptations to avoid self-fertilisation?
1. Dichogamy
2. Herkogamy
3. Dicliny
4. Self-incompatibility
180
What is dichogamy?
Separation of sexual organs in time - the stamens mature before carpels/pistils or vice versa
181
What is a pistil?
A carpet that is fused into one large structure containing many ovules
182
What is herkogamy?
Separation of sexual organs in space - style length polymorphisms
183
What are 2 examples of style length polymorphisms?
Distyly and tristyly
184
What is dicliny?
Sexual polymorphisms - plants are dioecious or monoecious
185
What is self-incompatibility?
Plants are able to recognise and reject their own pollen before the pollen tube can reach the ovule
186
What are examples of insect pollinators?
```
Beetles
Flies
Bees
Wasps
Butterflies
Moths
Ants
```
187
Beetles as insect pollinators
Believed to be first pollinators of angiosperms
| Attracted to dull, open, accessible flowers with a strong odour
188
Vertebrate pollinator examples
```
Birds
Bats
Possums
Mice
Lemurs
Lizards
```
189
What is the Madagascan long-spurred orchid pollinated by and how does it attract the pollinator?
Pollinated by the long-tongued moth
| It’s pale colours are visible at night, and it is strongly scented with copious nectar in long tubes/spurs
190
What species of orchid attracts pollinator males using sexual deception and what pollinator does it attract?
```
Ophrys speculum (‘mirror orchid’)
Attracts Campsoscolia ciliata (wasp)
Pseudocopulation occurs, which transfers pollen onto the wasp
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191
What 3 deceptions does Ophrys speculum use to attract the male wasp?
Odour - female bee sex pheromone
Visual - glistening speculum (mirror)
Tactile - hairs on labellum
