Evolutionary psychology Flashcards
= survival and reproduction (101 cards)
1
Q
What is evolutionary psychology?
A
A paradigm for studying and conceptualizing external and internalized human behaviors which may represent adaptations to problems encountered by the species in the EEA.
OR
EP is an approach to understand human behavior by understanding the evolutionary past.
2
Q
What is reproductive success?
A
Reproductive success refers to an individual’s ability to pass on its genes to the next generation by successfully producing offspring that survive and reproduce.
3
Q
Life forms have evolved a number of traits that facilitate the organism’s ability to reproduce - ORGANISMS THAT EXIST, EXIST BECAUSE THEIR ANCESTORS HAD CHARACTERISTICS THAT LEADED TO RS
A
4
Q
What is natural selection?
A
NATURAL SELECTION is the main mechanism of evolution. It explains how characteristics of a species that are adaptive, help the organism survive and reproduce, are selected and maintained within the species. Some features are more likely to be selected than others. For example, natural selection acts on traits with higher heritability and also on mutations with an adaptive role.
OR
Natural selection occurs when some inherited variations lead to greater RS than other inherited variations.
Natural selection merely acts on variants that happen to exist; evolution is not intentional and cannot look into the future and foresee distant needs. Selection is gradual, at least when evaluated relative to the human life span.
5
Q
What are the essential ingredients of natural selection?
A
- Variation
- Inheritance
- Differential reproductive success
6
Q
Is RS or longevity more important?
A
Nature favors reproductive success more than longevity.
7
Q
What is an ecological perspective?
A
An organism’s environment shapes the nature of the organism and the species.
8
Q
What is a selfish gene?
A
Selfish genes are genes that efficiently lead to their replication. They are more likely to be selected to exist in the future.
Genes act selfishly, but they can make organisms act selflessly, especially towards family, because helping family indirectly helps the selfish genes themselves.
9
Q
Is evolution about species?
A
No. In evolutionary psychology, the major emphasis is on humans, while species are almost irrelevant. It highlights human adaptation and human characteristics that are products of evolution, looking at how these characteristics helped previous generations to survive and reproduce, not how they helped the species to become successful in itself.
10
Q
What does fitness mean?
A
Fitness refers to how well an organism’s characteristics fit the environment it lives in.
11
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
Some characteristics cannot be explained by the process of natural selection, therefore SEXUAL SELECTION refers to the selection of traits that facilitate reproduction simply because they do so, even if they hinder survival. Sexual selection operates through two processes: INTERSEXUAL SELECTION between sexes - some characteristics are attractive to potential partners and INTRASEXUAL SELECTION within members of the same sex - helps one individual to be in competition with another for access to the opposite sex .
OR
Sexual selection deals with the evolution of characteristics due to success in mating rather than to success in survival. Sexual selection operates through two processes: intrasexual competition and intersexual selection.
12
Q
What are some causes of evolutionary change?
A
- natural selection
- sexual selection
- genetic drift
- founder-effects - occur when a small portion of a population establishes a new colony and the founders of the new colony are not genetically representative of the original population
- genetic bottlenecks - when a population shrinks, perhaps owing to a random catastrophe such as an earthquake
13
Q
What are some common misunderstandings about evolutionary theory?
A
- Human Behavior Is Genetically Determined
- If It’s Evolutionary, We Cannot Change It
- Current Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed (the current mechanisms are the result of what have worked the best in the past)
14
Q
What is EEA?
A
EEA stands for environment of evolutionary adaptation which refers to past environmental conditions that shaped characteristics.
15
Q
What does the MISMATCH THEORY states?
A
MISMATCH THEORY explains how context changes quickly and organisms find themselves in situations for which they are not evolutionarily prepared.
16
Q
What is a GENETIC DRIFT?
A
GENETIC DRIFT is an evolutionary mechanism which describes how some genes are more prevalent in the population not because they confer adaptive benefits, but because of chance.
17
Q
What is a SPRANDEL?
A
Every adaptation brings with it a series of artefacts that have no reproductive benefits, therefore SPRANDEL is a by-product of evolution.
18
Q
What is a TRADE-OFF?
A
In evolutionary psychology, a trade-off arises between natural selection and sexual selection. Often, humans might perceive natural selection as a process that creates perfection in species. However, this is not entirely accurate. The evolutionary process doesn’t aim for perfection but rather selects traits that increase an organism’s likelihood of successful reproduction and survival in a given environment. For instance, consider the human central nervous system. While it may not be deemed perfect, as evidenced by the existence of mental health issues, it has played a crucial role in the survival and reproduction of the species. The trade-off here is that certain imperfections or vulnerabilities in the central nervous system may exist, but these do not prevent the overall success of the species in terms of reproduction and survival.
!EVOLUTION IS ABOUT OPTIMIZATION, NOT PERFECTION AND WORKS IN TRADE-OFFS!
19
Q
What is the paradox of psychiatric disorders?
A
Even though psychiatric disorders have heritable risk and are considered maladaptive, they still exist.
20
Q
Why do mental disorders exist and persist?
A
- Despite natural selection
Disorders causing mutations arise faster than selection can remove them from population. A high rate of mutation may be due to inherent trait complexity or other environmental and biological factors (autism, bipolar disorder).
Alleles that were neither favored nor disfavored by natural selection interact with modern environments to cause disorder. - Because of natural selection
A small number of risk alleles and a moderate degree of a particular trait are beneficial, but extremes lead to disorder (anxiety disorder).
Alleles that increase risk for disorder have evolved because they also improved fitness in some environments, in only one sex, or when at a particular frequency in the population. They are maladaptive in some contexts and adaptive in others. ( psychopathy)
The trait improved ancestral fitness, but interacts negatively with some aspects of the modern environment (addictions, bipolar disorder)
The trait is an adaptation that is now culturally disfavored. Some conditions may be classified as disorder despite being adaptive and lacking any malfunction in the brain (depressive disorders, tabacco and nicotine adiiction)
21
Q
What can be a new definition of distress?
A
Distress can be viewed as something unpleasant which cause suffering, but it is not necessarily an indicative of biological malfunction.
22
Q
Are humans considered r species or k-species?
A
Humans are considered a K-type species, as they invest a significant amount of time and resources in raising and educating their offspring, providing them with a better chance of survival and success in their environment.
23
Q
What does the parental investment theory states?
A
Parental investment theory refers to the time, energy and resources an organism invests in procreating and raising offspring. It can be done through direct and indirect ways.
Even though males invest more in competition for reproductive access and finding partners, and females have a higher obligatory parental investment, both parents make a significant contribution by investing in their shared children in the context of long-term relationships
24
Q
What happens when paternity is uncertain for men?
A
- will allocate more resources to their own children than to stepchildren
- will invest less than those who are certain of paternity (=genetically)
- spend less time together, provide fewer resources for education
- will invest more if the current partner is also the child’s mother than if it is a child from a previous relationship
25
What is the primary caretaker hypothesis?
Women have a greater preference for viewing images of newborns. Their interest is greatest during adolescence and young adulthood.
Women recognize facial expressions of newborn emotions more readily than men (especially negative emotions), which enhances a secure attachment and avoidance of danger
26
What is the tend-and-befriend tendency of women?
It is about protecting children and calming them from being noticed by potential predators, on the one hand, and creating and maintaining social support networks, on the other hand
27
What is the Cinderella Syndrome?
Children living in the same home with a stepparent are at greater risk of being abused, hospitalized with intentionally inflicted injuries, and being victims of intentional or wrongful homicide.
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What is KIN SELECTION?
Kin selection is the preference for helping close relatives.
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The evolution of susceptibility to diseases is influenced by a complex interplay between genetic factors, natural selection, sexual selection, and the rapid evolution of pathogens. The constant changes in pathogens create challenges for human immune systems to keep up, leading to the persistence of diseases in human populations. Despite the negative impact of some diseases on individual health, the broader process of evolution ensures that populations as a whole continue to adapt over time.
30
Why are people vulnerable to disease?
- MISMATCH THEORY between our organism and the environment
(our bodies were not "designed" for the modern environment in which we live now - example: Diet rich in certain carbohydrates and fats - leads to atherosclerosis; in the past these substances were difficult to obtain and the individual could consume them in limited quantities +
evolutionary, an organism is prepared to live in the same environment in which it developed - example: Low birth weight associated with insulin resistance (risk of type II diabetes), but not if individuals continued to live in an environment with insufficient resources; diabetes would develop slowly or not at all)
- TRADE-OFF
(the process that is protective can cause problems; protective mechanisms can go wrong through hyper-reactivity - the “smoke detector” principle: it is better to be very sensitive than to miss a fire; example: fever serves a purpose: killing pathogens (warning) BUT very high fever can create other problems (seizures, brain damage))
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DEFECT VS DEFENSE
Defect = physiological manifestation that serves no purpose (e.g. convulsions)
Defense = serves an initial purpose (e.g. coughing - removing foreign material from the respiratory tract)
32
What are some stress coping strategies?
FIGHT OR FLIGHT
- Better descriptor for men’s response rather than women’s
- Fight-or-flight is a critical stress response mechanism
- The problem is that many of the stressors we encounter today do not require a fight-or-flight response
- The flight or fight response was crucial in the EEA, but today, in the different social structure, it can lead to stress-related disorders
TEND-AND-BEFRIEND (GROOM AND BEFRIEND)
- Better descriptor for women
- Throughout evolution, women have selected behaviors that maximize both their survival and that of their offspring
- females respond by caring for their offspring as well as with behaviors to protect them from danger
- Tend: the caregiving response is part of a wider process of mother-infant attachment
- Befriend: involves a wider social group, with women seeking contact with their social group that is protective for survival
33
What is the evolutionary logic behind stress?
- The automatic nervous system prepares the body for action when a threatened stimulus is perceived.
- Our body convert fats and carbohydrates into energy that can be used immediately.
- The immune system is activated in order to protect the body from injury.
34
Do men and women want the same thing in a partner?
Both genders value kindness, understanding and intelligence when looking for a partner. However, men value physical appearance and chastity more than women do and women value a partner's current and potential resources more than men do.
35
Why are women predominantly attracted to men who have resources?
- They can facilitate parental investment on the part of the man.
- Their possession denotes energy and competitiveness, as such good genetic material.
- Importance of potential
36
Why are men mostly attracted to young, physically pleasing and chaste women?
- Youth signals high reproductive potential.
- Good looks indicate physical health.
- Historically chaste because it solves the problem of uncertainty about paternity.
37
What is mate value?
Mate value refers to how attractive a person is to potential partners.
38
What is psychopathology?
Psychopathology is caused by maladaptive processes which cause distress to the individual. Moreover, it is characterized by a deviation from cultural and statistical norms producing the person to have difficulties in connecting with the environment and himself. The patterns of thinking, the emotions and behaviors are rigid and inflexible, individuals perceiving fewer alternatives which leads to lower freedom.
From an evolutionary standpoint, psychopathology can be perceived as a protection mechanism.
39
What are some evolutionary models of psychopathology?
- SINGLE EXPOSURE LEARNING
Garcia effect; PTSD
- EXAGERATION OF NORMAL PROCESSES
Anxiety disorders - scanning the environment for danger is exaggerated and it limits the individual's functioning
- LOSS OF A SENSE OF AGENCY
Auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: the result of dysfunction of a mechanism that identifies whether an action was done by self or by others (if we produced something, we can control it)
- DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS THAT LEAD TO PROBLEMS LATER
Anxious attachment - anxiety
- ARTIFACT OF ANOTHER PROTECTION
Protection against malaria – sickle cell disease
- HIGHLY ADAPTIVE TRAITS THAT INCREASE THE LIKELIHOOD OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Creativity- bipolar disorder, schizophrenia
- PREVIOUSLY ADAPTIVE MECHANISMS THAT NOW LEAD TO PATHOLOGY
Depression = extreme stress that activates self-preservation instincts + loss of significant people + loss of social status
40
Anxiety as a protection mechanism
Anxiety have evolved to protect the individual from other types of threats as pain is the body's warning system to protect it from tissue destruction.
41
What mechanisms lead to psychopathology?
- ADAPTATION
Psychopathology may arise when adaptive mechanisms developed in EEA become maladaptive in the current post-EEA environment. (mismatch theory - phobias)
- AFFECTED MECHANISMS
Psychopathology can stem from disruptions in the cognitive structures (underactivation, overactivation) of adaptive characteristics, influenced by the mismatch between the EEA and the post-EEA environment. (anxiety disorders)
- ARTIFACTS
Some psychopathological conditions arise as byproducts or artifacts of adaptive structures shaped by evolution. (distress is an artifact of the adaptive structures involved in depression; isolation)
- COGNITIVE STRUCTURES WORK INCORRECTLY
Psychopathology may result from cognitive structures functioning incorrectly, leading to conditions such as schizophrenia.
42
Is the experience of mental illness universal?
Yes, mental illness is not a culturally created concept, but part of the human condition, both in prevalence and recognition. As the prevalence of mental problems in different cultures around the globe is similar, it is more likely to be part of the human condition than culturally derived. For example, common mental illnesses, like schizophrenia, are found at similar rates around the world.
43
Is there an adaptive value to psychopathological behaviors and experiences?
Based on the context
44
Is there evidence of psychopathology throughout human history? Is there evidence of psychopathology in non-human species?
Yes
45
Wakefield (1992) - a condition is a mental disorder if:
- The condition harms the person
- The condition results from the inability of a mental mechanism to perform its natural function
46
Nesse (2005): 3 questions before addressing if a condition is a mental disorder
1. Are cognitive and brain mechanisms normal or defective? - If the mechanisms are defective, for example following an accident or trauma, an evolutionary approach to psychopathology is inappropriate
2. Did the symptoms result from new aspects of the environment? - These aspects could evoke responses that were adaptive in the EEA, but not now
3. Are the symptoms in the interest of the individual, his genes, or neither?
47
Categorizing psychopathology from an evolutionary perspective:
Nesse (2005) - looks primarily at emotional, cognitive and behavioral responses that occur in normal systems → 5 conditions under which these responses can occur:
1. They are normal responses that can be helpful to the person, like anxiety or anger, but can be experienced as aversive
2. They are normal responses that would benefit the individual's genes, but may conflict with their well-being
3. These are normal responses that may not be useful in particular situations
4. They are normal responses that may not be useful now, but have been useful in the past
5. They are normal responses that are not harmful to the individual, but may be seen as abnormal by their group or culture
48
Is it adaptive to be afraid in the face of danger?
There is a genetic component to some phobias, but not everyone fears the same things, which would suggest a developmental aspect. For a variety of situations, fear can be learned through observation, but only in relation to objects of evolutionary relevance.
49
What is the no. 1 cause of disability worldwide?
DEPRESSION
50
Depression symptoms:
- Persistent sadness/depressed mood
- Loss of interest/pleasure
- Appetite changes
- Sleep changes
- Low motivation/energy
- Guilt/lack of value
- Suicidal ideation
51
Do you learn to be depressed or are you born with it?
Both
- As an adaption (itself)
The behaviors are not adaptive by themselves, it's the mechanism! - Given the enormous costs associated with depression/anxiety, a more reasonable explanation would be that negative mood represents an adaptation, not depression. Depression would represent an extreme and persistent negative mood, and clinically significant anxiety is a persistent and extreme form of justified anxiety.
- As a product of circumstance in an evolutionary mechanism (operant conditioning principles)
52
What is the most common type of mental disorder?
ANXIETY - affects up to 7% of the population
53
What is the difference between anxiety and fear?
Fear is in response to a stimulus you are currently facing, while anxiety is anticipatory fear – sometimes justified, other times not
54
Anxiety disorders characteristics:
- cognitive (worry, lack of confidence)
- emotional (fear, irritability)
- physiological (tachycardia, agitation, dry mouth, sweating, etc.)
- behavioral (avoidance)
55
What are some fitness inhancing goals in CET?
- shelter and security,
- nutrition and food acquisition,
- health,
- sexuality,
- mate selection, attraction, protection and retention,
- parenting,
- ingroup and between-group interactions
56
What are emotions?
Emotions are adaptive responses that arise from mechanisms shaped by selection. In situations that decrease fitness, negative emotions are useful and positive emotions are harmful.
57
What does modern theories state about emotions?
Modern theories explain specific emotions as coordinated states that give fitness advantages in specific situations that recurred over evolutionary time. Emotions correspond to different situations that have recurred over the course of evolutionary time.
58
What is the function of emotions?
Positive emotions - motivate the organism to take advantage of environmental opportunities and to recognize when it has succeeded in doing so
- joy motivates continuing on the present course or, if the object has been attained, ceasing to strive for it;
- interest motivates exploration;
- lust motivates seduction and sexual intercourse;
Negative emotions - motivate the organism to avoid misfortune by escaping, attacking, or preventing harm or by repairing damage when it has already occurred
- fear motivates escape from danger
- anger motivates attack;
- disgust motivates avoidance, vomiting, and more metaphorical expulsion;
- sorrow motivates calling for help or giving up on fruitless endeavors
59
Emotions for situations that arise in social exchanges
ME - COOPERATE
YOU - COOPERATE -> TRUST -> GRATITUDE
YOU - DEFECT ->SUSPICION -> ANGER
ME - DEFECT
YOU - COOPERATE -> ANXIETY -> GUILT
YOU - DEFECT -> DISGUST -> REJECTION
60
What is the utility of sadness?
Sadness can motivate searching for what is lost, and if it is not found, seeking a replacement; motivates avoidance of actions that preceded the loss, preventing future losses.
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! Diagnostic criteria should
consider the appropriateness of an emotion to the situation!
62
What is the evolutionary psychology of psychopathology?
The evolutionary psychology of psychopathology explains how psychopathology can be considered to be the result of both normal and abnormal genetics resulting from developmental adaptations arising from interaction with both adequate and inadequate environments. Psychopathology is, from an evolutionary perspective, due to both functional aversive evolutionary adaptations, or adaptations that are mismatched to our modern environment, and mechanism malfunction
63
What is anorexia nervosa?
Anorexia nervosa is characterized by abnormal reduction in body weight, distortion of body image, intense and persistent fear of gaining weight.
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What is bulimia nervosa?
Bulimia nervosa is characterized by compulsive eating associated with inadequate methods to prevent weight gain.
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What are the evolutionary hypotheses for explaining eating disorders?
- THE INTRASEXUAL COMPETITION HYPOTHESIS
Women are the ones with the greater investment in offspring, so they will be more selective regarding a future partner. However, given that the partner "market" is highly crowded, with greater competition than ever, the emphasis is placed on those traits that are more challenging to counterfeit. Youth is one of the main indicators of fertility, and younger partners are favored by men. The hourglass figure becomes increasingly challenging to maintain as women age, so a well-maintained silhouette holds greater value in the "market."
(In addition to the small proportion of men who suffer from anorexia in the "classic" sense, there are those who strive to assert themselves in the "market" with a muscular body, suggesting the ability to protect a partner and future offspring. When these behaviors spiral out of control and become harmful, a problem called "reverse anorexia," "bigorexia," or "megarexia" emerges)
- REPRODUCTIVE SUPPRESSION/SOCIAL UNCERTAINTY HYPOTHESIS
Weight loss is perceived as a strategy to slow reproductive ability and also as a strategy to prevent unwanted pregnancy.
- ADAPTED TO FLEE FAMINE HYPOTHESIS
In the past, there was competition for food or migration. Therefore, there is a genetic predisposition to develop anorexia/ bulimia.
- anorexia/bulimia- behaviors that occur as a consequence of the struggle for resources/lack of adaptation to resources
ANOREXIA/BULIMIA VS. PERFECTIONISM VS. LACK OF CONTROL
66
Is language an adaptation?
The position taken by most evolutionary psychologists is that only humans exhibit human language, but that this is an adaptation.
67
Language = a form of communication, but not all forms of communication are language
Language presents "contextual freedom" and communication consists of fixed signals
68
What is language?
Language is a rule-governed system that combines sounds in words and words in sentences to express thoughts, feelings, ideas, actual or imagined states of affairs.
69
BF Skinner perspective on language
Language is learned entirely from the language environment, through reinforcement and punishment, and does not depend on innate knowledge.
Language is acquired through trial and error like other behaviors.
Language is acquired during development, and the linguistic environment only provides the stimuli for the realization of an innate potential.
70
Chomsky perspective on language
The stimulus poverty argument - children's language performance cannot be explained by trial and error because they have the ability to understand and produce sentences they have never heard. (wug example)
We share a native "universal grammar" that allows us to acquire language as we mature
The linguistic environment in which we are raised only shapes the language or languages we end up speaking
71
Phylogeny of language: when?
Early theory: language emerged with gender Homo, about 2 million years ago
Intermediate theory: It appeared with the species Homo sapiens about now 150,000 years
Late Theory: It started when we started making art about 60,000 years ago
72
What are the adaptive functions of language?
SURVIVAL THEORY (survivalist): solving problems related to the acquisition of resources; there is a need for intra- and inter-group cooperation.
GOSSIP HYPOTHESIS: solving social problems
Grooming behavior facilitates reciprocity, trust, and loyalty among coalition members. Homo solved the grooming problem by using gossip as a form of grooming. Therefore, language is an adaptation to the need to know about the biography, personality and intentions of others.
MATING MIND HYPOTHESIS: language is the product of sexual selection
The evolution of language was driven by the need of males to "advertise themselves" to females and the need of both sexes to reveal and explore each other's biographies before committing to a couple relationship.
73
Personality disorders = extreme variants of personality that cause harm in most aspects of life
They are detrimental for career opportunities, social adaptation, longevity, family life, health, well-being. However, personality disorders do not globally harm reproductive success, and some subtypes definitely enhance resource acquisition or multiply mating success.
74
Action systems
Action systems adapt the individual to the environment, maximizing gene transmission. Based on the environmental cues, there are multiple action systems:
- The alarm system - reacts to threats to biological goals via automatic defensive responses
- The incentive system - detects resource opportunities and energizes behavior toward appetitive stimuli
- The affiliation system – drives attraction, pair-bonding, care-eliciting, care-giving, or reciprocity
- The (behavioral) control system - inhibits impulses arising from all the above systems in accordance with the individual’s future interests (long term)
75
Clinicians should be clear that patients do not want to increase fitness, but to relieve pain!!!!
76
What is media richness?
Media richness is the extent to which a medium can unify frames of reference, make issues less ambiguous, or provide learning opportunities within a given time frame, based on its ability to provide immediate feedback, the number of senses and cues involved, personalization, and variety of language
77
What does the media richness theory state?
According to the media richness theory, a rational user will choose a communication method with the appropriate "richness" to convey the information necessary for a task.
78
What is media naturalness?
"Media naturalness" is the ability of media to support synchronous communication from the same place using facial expressions, body language and speech. Any media that deviates from 'natural' communication puts pressure on the brain.
79
What is aggression?
= an act whereupon harm is intentionally inflicted upon another person who did not wish to be so afflicted
= strategies that are used depending on the context to solve adaptive problems
80
What are some theories of aggression?
1. Freud + Lorentz - aggressive impulses, which "explode" at some point
2. Vicarious learning + TV/game violence
3. Nature vs nurture – either way it’s your parents’ fault
4. Evolutionary model – interaction
Mechanisms = information processing devices - Specific input + Decision rules + Output
81
For what problems could AGGRESSION (have) BE(en) A SOLUTION?
- Co-opting the resources of others
(Bullying, "protection fee", robbery, burglary...etc - means of obtaining)
- Defence against others
(Status, reputation, resources)
- Inflict Costs on Intrasexual Rivals
(Access to the opposite sex - very important resource)
- Negotiate Status and Power Hierarchies
- Preventing future aggression
- Deter Long-Term Mates from Sexual Infidelity
(Jealousy is the leading cause of domestic violence)
- Reduce Resources Expended on Unrelated Children
(Stepchildren - higher risk of victimization)
82
Who is more likely to use aggression to solve the problem of infidelity?
It depends on the mate value - partners who are 'valuably' inferior are more likely to use this strategy.
83
What is religion?
”A set of ideas, feelings, and actions shared by a group that provides its members with an object of worship, a code of behavior, a frame of reference for entering into relationship with the group and the universe."
84
Evolutionary hypotheses for religion
- Spandrel - we have evolved in a certain way, and religious beliefs are products of circumstance
- Adaptationism - religion is an adaptation to the environment, a step-in evolution
85
What is jelousy?
- a warning about a possible threat
- activated by the presence of (a) rival(s)
- a motivational mechanism with behavioral expression
86
Both men and women exhibit sexual and emotional jealousy, buuuuut:
- Men report higher levels of anger and betrayal towards sexual infidelity scenarios
- Women reported stronger emotions of anger, anxiety and fear towards emotional infidelity scenarios
87
What is the explanation for gender differences when comes to experiencing jealousy?
- The parental certainty hypothesis in exchange for resources
- The hypothesis of parenting opportunities in exchange for resources
88
Humor and laughter are closely related; however, they are not synonymous!!!
- Humor is the underlying cognitive process that frequently, but not necessarily, leads to laughter – cognitive process
- Laughter is a seizure-like activity that can be elicited by experiencing a humorous cognitive stimulus but also other stimuli such as tickling - behavior
89
What are the benefits of humor/laughter?
- Pleasant state - 'reinforcible' behaviour
- Beneficial in courting behaviour
- Helps in problematic social situations
- Can increase immunity
- Signals complex cognitive attributes
90
Humor theories
1) humor = incongruent conceptualizations
In a benign context - unrelated to our values, when we are psychologically distant from the events, if it's a context that makes them acceptable
2) humor involves sexuality and aggression (eventually repressed)
3) humor enhances social status by demonstrating superiority or preserving reputation.
+ 4) evolutionary theories of humor demonstrate the adaptive qualities of humor and/or laughter
-from grooming to jokes
-the evolutionary purpose of humor and laughter is linked to facilitating cooperation among people
91
Menopause
Menopause is a natural physiological process, end of reproductive life (gr. minus + pause) - minimum 12 months amenorrhoea
92
Evolutionary hypotheses for menopause
A. BYPRODUCT HYPOTHESIS
- Artifact of longevity
- No advantages over reproduction
B. Adaptive onset Hypothesis – AOH
- Menopause evolved to stop reproduction and invest in existing children
- Low chance of late born surviving
93
Who is expected to have more influence on grandchildren's upbringing, maternal grandmother or paternal grandmother?
We expect the maternal grandmother to offer more resources, as she is certain of the family relationship.
94
Is the maternal grandmother more interested in granddaughters or grandsons?
Both, as they are equally probable to be related.
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Is the paternal grandmother more interested in granddaughters or grandsons?
Granddaughters, as they are probably more genetically similar (the x chromosome, for instance, is certainly from her grandma)
96
Abortion
= termination of pregnancy (induced/spontaneous):
Spontaneous = without external intervention on the pregnant woman's body, due to anatomical-physiological causes.
Provoked = by (non)specialised surgery/accidents
97
Abortion theories
THE REPRODUCTIVE SUPPRESSION MODEL argues that reproductive failure is a way in which the organism decides to interrupt reproductive function for a limited or unlimited period of time when the environment does not provide optimal conditions for its achievement, and is associated with very high costs of parental investment.
98
Abortion rates decrease with age for single women and increase with age for married women WHY?
Young women will invest in offspring when they have a stable partner (husband), as this is considered an optimal period. If they do not have a partner, they will tend to postpone having a child until later, when they have sufficient resources (acquired/secured especially in a marriage). Older women will try to limit having more children if they are already married, as they are more likely to already have the desired number of children and would prefer to invest in their development (skills, social status etc). On the other hand, unmarried older women are more likely to be childless and to want to take advantage of these last chances to have offspring, especially as their social status (and therefore income) is likely to be higher than in their youth (the more so as they have dedicated themselves to a career in the absence of a husband/stable relationship).
99
Mothers with multiple children vs. mothers with one child - does it matter? WHY?
Mothers with many children are more likely to have abortions, precisely in order to have time and resources to invest in their development.
100
High vs. low socio-economic status - does it matter? WHY?
Socio-economic status is important in relation to the level of information and quality of resources available to us.
101
Contrary to myths, it seems that women who are refused an abortion are more psychologically affected in the long term than those who do have an abortion. However, those who are refused but then end up miscarrying are more likely to develop anxiety or a depressive disorder.
