Exam 1 Flashcards
psychology
scientific study of behaviour, thought, experience, and how they are affected by physical, mental, social, and environmental factors
Measuring smoke – fire is not directly measurable; highly variable
biopsychosocial model
individual as the product of many influences
Biological – genes, brain anatomy and function
- some psych and behviour disorders, drug effects, brain behaviour relationships
Psychological – behaviour, perception, thought, experience
- language, memory, decision
Sociocultural – interpersonal relationships, families, groups, societies, ethnicities; can’t live isolated
-Attraction, attitudes and stereotypes, conformity
scientific method
a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions
Process
- Observation -> develop theory -> develop hypothesis to test theory
- Confirm -> strengthens original theory; develop secondary hypothesis; developing credibility
- Deny -> must revise theory or discard/modify original hypothesis
theory
explanation of a phenomenon; generates and is tested through hypotheses (not opinion/belief)
hypothesis
testable prediction; can be observed and measured; cannot be technically proven
- Will confirm or deny theory
- Falsifiable – hypothesis can be disproven (ex. all swans are white)
building scientific literacy
smart and critical consumers of psychological information; all sectors intertwine together
o Knowledge gathering – what do we already know
o Scientific explanation
o Critical thinking – evaluating the evidence; are sources credible
o Application – why is this research relevant; how does it apply to society and people
why is psych a science
o Empiricism – knowledge gained by careful observation; through theories, hypothesis, research experiments
o Determinism – events governed by lawful, cause and effect relationships; nothing happens for no reason
Ex. gravity
o Psych combines determinism and empiricism – not conflicting; understand behaviour by making observations and testing hypotheses; cause and effect occurs at different levels
Calls free will into question – is everything the result of the biopsychosocial model
circa 1500 BCE
Ancient Egyptian doctors describing behavioural changes following damage to head
circa 430 BCE - 215 AD
Greek (philosopher Hippocrates) and roman (Galen of Pergamon) physicians developed the 4 humours/temperaments theories of personality (ratio of liquids determined personality)
4 humours: o Sanguine (blood) – impulsive, pleasure seeking, charismatic o Choleric (yellow bile) – ambitious, energetic, aggressive o Melancholic (black bile) – independent, perfectionist, introverted o Phlegmatic (phlegm) – quiet, relaxed, content
circa 1600
materialism vs dualism
adoption of scientific method
Growth in physics, astronomy, physiology, biology, and chemistry (not much psych)
Materialism – belief that humans and other living things are composed of exclusively physical matter
- Popular at this time
Dualism – matter and mind are dual properties; there are properties of humans that are not material (mind and soul); immeasurable
- Popular today
- We have not been able to localize consciousness further than “I think therefore I am”
influence from physics
Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) – how energy produces motion:
- Psychophysics – study of the relationship between physical world and mental representation (how things are vs how they are perceived)
- Weight experiment – Weber’s Law; added weight was perceived as less when added to 5lb relative to 1lb weight
- Integrated light and sound
- Created equation to calculate perceived changes of stimulus – at what point does perception change
influences from evolutionary theory
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – evolution of species; studied adaption to environment
- Natural selection – genetically inherited traits that contribute to survival and reproductive success are more likely to be passed onto next generation
(Applies to behaviours)
- Traits differ across environments
influences from medicine
- year (what field of psych)
- brain function from injury
- leading influences
1800s
Clinical psych – concentrates on the diagnosis and treatment of psych disorders
Localization of brain function – certain parts of brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics:
Phrenology – mental traits and disproportions could be determined by examining surface of skull (27 “organs”)
- Franz Gall (1758-1828) and Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832)
Brain injuries
- Paul Broca – left frontal lobe damage (Broca’s area); speaking and word production; Could formulate words and ideas; could not communicate them
- Karl Wernicke – left hemisphere damage (Wernicke’s area); language comprehension
- Phineas Gage – frontal lobe damage; impulsiveness and childlike behaviour
Names:
Franz Mesmer (1734-1815) – believed exposure to magnets could redirect the flow of metallic fluid in the body to cure disease and insanity
- Some patients reported being cured – likely placebo effect
- Now known as hypnosis
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – intrigued by hypnosis; theorized unconscious mind fuelled our behaviours & tried to use hypnosis to access this
- Used a medical model and evolutionary influences to determine what motivates and the importance of early life experiences
- Psychoanalysis – access unconscious mind; attempts to explain how unconscious processes influence behaviour and personality
- Believed the unconscious mind contained:
Forgotten memories
Sexual and aggressive urges (Edapis theory – young men were attracted to their mothers)
- Radical and exciting – much was unfounded and untrue
- psychoanalysis is still used today
influences from social science
Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) – measured perception, used statistical analysis to study behaviour:
Individual differences in people – nature vs nurture; how they influence mental processes
- Nature – heredity (genetic material)
- Nurture – environment
Eminence – combination of ability, morality, and achievement that run in families; belief that there is a hereditary basis for success; nature
- Eugenics – superior race/bloodline; used to justify genocide (ex. holocaust)
- Darwin believed this as well
- Phrenology backed this – superior brains
names of beginning of contemporary psych
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) – first laboratory dedicated to human behaviour (1979)
- Introspection – to look within
- Participant studies
Sensation and perception
Reaction times
- Measured how experimental manipulations affected mental events
- Mental activity is not instantaneous
Ex. reaction times – processes occurring
Experiments showed cause and effect relationships
Edward Titchener (1867-1927) – student of Wundt - Structuralism – analysis of conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements; understanding how the elements work together; Mental experiences were made up of a limited number of sensations Combined sensations/structural components create conscious experience and mental life
William James (1842-1910) – wrote first psych textbook (Principles of Psych, 1890)
- Studied behaviour in context (instead of structural)
How thoughts and action help us adapt to environment (Darwin)
- Functionalism – study of purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience
Behaviour is understood by the purpose it served in evolution
behaviourism in contemporary psych (and names)
singular focus on studying only observable behaviour; little to no reference to mental events/instincts ; removed cognition and psychoanalysis
Edwin Twitmyer (1873-1934) – laid groundwork for behaviourism
- Classic conditioning – training behaviour and response (still used today); begs the question why we need thought and experience
- Patellar reflex was associated with sound; reflex could then be produced with sound
- Pavlov’s dogs
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) – behavioural changes were based on consequence
- Pos – person will do it more
- Neg – do it less
- Parental – learned early on in childhood
John Watson (1878-1958) – only observable changes in environment and behaviour are appropriate for scientific study
- “give me a child” – thought you could train a child to be anything; learning was consequence of behaviour
- Conditioning
B.F Skinner (1904-1990)
- Radical behaviourism – foundation of behaviour is the response to reward and punishment
social and cultural influences (historically)
Norman Triplett (1861-1931) – published first Social Psychological research (1898)
- influence of social situation on behaviour
- holocaust occurring at this time – how could people on mass commit acts of violence
- bike riders – will bike faster in group setting
1940s
- Social psychology – study of influence from other people on behaviour
- Personality psychology – study of how different personality characteristics; influenced by social situation (people by themselves vs in a group setting)
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) – founder of modern social psychology
- Behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment (nature and nurture)
- social and personality are intertwined domains
cognitive revolution
mainly in Europe; difficulty penetrating through behaviourism; called into question things behaviourism couldn’t explain
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) – studied memory
Fredrick Bartlett (1886-1969) – cultural knowledge and previous experience influence our memory
Noam Chomsky – aspects of language (grammar and vocabulary)
Gestalt psychology
- Focuses on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts
- Thinking and experiencing occur at higher, more organized levels
Cognitive psych: Ulrich Neisser (1928-2012) – named it
- Modern psych – focused on processing memory, thinking and language
- More than just observable phenomenon – create theories and translate them into behaviour
- Computer/brain analogy – many connections; only see what’s on the “screen”
- Imperfect – computers were created by humans; we understand computers, we don’t understand brains
- Learning more about computers from and using computers to measure brain activity (circular)
humanistic psych
Unique aspects of individuals o Freedom to act o Rational thought o Fundamental differences between humans and animals o Meaning of personal experience
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
o Self actualization – most they can be
o Esteem – respect and recongnition
o Love and belonging
o Safety – social psych went into
o Physiological needs – basic psych went into
brain and behaviour psychologists
Donald Hebb (1904-1985)
o Hebb’s Law – cells that fire together wire together; studied neuronal connections and cellular synapses
- More “talking” = stronger connections (instincts, reflexes, habits)
Wilder Penfield (1891-1976) – mapping sensory and motor brain regions
o Initially used to remove centers of brain in epilepsy patient – shocked areas of brain under local anesthesia to identify parts of brain
- Progressed into brain mapping
o Subjective experience in brain – can be represented in brain in different regions (?)
emerging themes in psych
Psych of women – underrepresented historically
Behaviour in different cultures
o Psych students are WEIRD (white, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic)
Brain imaging
Positive psych – outlook influences wellbeing
Psych in “real world” vs psych in “digital world”
o Digital world is becoming more prominent
o Are studies in lab applicable to real world
research method general goals (3)
Critical thinking
Objectivity – facts about the world can be agreed on by independent observers
- Subjectivity – beliefs, opinions, experiences, expectations
Participation and consumption of research
variable
object/concept being being controlled, manipulated, or measured
o Independent – controlled
o Dependant – outcome; measures effectiveness and manipulation of independent
operational definition
statements that describe the procedures/operations and specific measurements that are used to record observations (detailed explanations of how/what)
5 goals of scientific research
Measurements are objective, valid, and reliable
Generalizable
Techniques reduce bias
Is made public
Can be replicated
Measurements are objective, valid, and reliable (3)
definitions
a. Objective – consistent measurement across instruments and observers (ex. weight and height)
b. Validity – measures what it claims to measure (using correct questions)
c. Reliability – measure provides consistent outcomes from multiple observers or points in time
i. Test-retest – person should score same score when they feel a certain way
ii. Alternate forms – same test with different version should produce same scores
iii. Inter-rater – multiple observers should get the same result
generalizable (& sample types)
degree to which set of results can be applied to other situations/individuals/events
a. Testing very specific is not helpful – less likely to occur in real life
b. Using a large enough sample to represent entire population
i. Random sample – everyone has an equal chance of being selected
ii. Convenience sample – can cause bias; convenience of researcher or participant
techniques reduce bias
a. Researcher bias
i. Demand characteristics – eliciting certain responses because of what they expect to happen; occurs through types of questions, body language, how info is given to participant
b. Subject/participant bias
i. Social desirability – wanting to be a good participant; giving researchers what they want
ii. Hawthorne effect – change in behaviour from being observed
c. Reducing bias
i. Anonymity – reduces social desirability
ii. Confidential – reduces social desirability
iii. Placebo – measure how expectations influence results
iv. Blind procedures
- Single blind – participants don’t know purpose or what treatment they’re given
- Double blind – neither participant or researcher knows; reduces researcher bias as well
is made public
published in academic journals
General public – radio shows and podcasts
can be replicated
repeating study and finding similar outcome every time
Replication crisis – journals are not excited about publishing what is already known:
- Desire to publish creates 2 types of bias
1. research is only done in areas that may produce significant results
2. Influenced/altered to produce significant result - good research should not be influenced by getting a certain result
- null results should still be published
- which is correct? - historical or present?
- Small differences could produce different results
- Many labs project – replicating famous findings to ensure they hold true
- Ex. ManyBabies
poor methods
- Untestable hypothesis – falsifiable
- Anecdotal & relies on subjective experience
- Biased selection of data – does not include all relevant groups
- Appeals to and trusting authority without scientific evidence (ex. Covid-19)
- Appeals to common sense, but lacking scientific evidence
6 research designs
Descriptive
Case studies
Naturalistic observation
Surveys and questionnaires
Correlation research
Experimental research
descriptive
a. Quantitative – calculations; uses numerical measurements and statistics
b. Qualitative – observational; without numerical calculations
c. Both are important – type used should back up type of study conducted
case studies
in depth report about a specific case (unique situation)
Common in clinical psych – use detailed report of one person and use to build case about specific topic
- Freud
- Phineas Gage – case study about prefrontal lobe (frontal lobe?)
Pros – detailed info; rare conditions
Cons – limits generizability
naturalistic observation
unobtrusively observing and recording as it occurs in a natural environment
Jane Goodall
Pros – negates Hawthorne; detailed description in natural environment
Cons – poor control over influential variables
surveys and questionnaires
Self-report – responses are provided directly by subjects
- Face to face
- Phone survey
- Paper and pencil
- Web based
Allows assessment of attitudes, opinions, beliefs, abilities
Cons – poor control; requires participants are truthful (anonymity and confidentiality help)
Pros – Useful in acquiring a lot of data
correlation research
measuring degree of association between 2 or more variables
How do they influence each other
- Synergistic/antagonistic
- If they change with each other – association
Direction
- Positive – same direction (direct)
- Negative – different directions (inverse)
Magnitude – strength -1 to +1 -/+1 = same magnitude of change in each direction - Decimal influences distribution 0 = no association
Pros – shows strength of relationship
Cons
- Third variable problem – 3rd variable influences and makes it appear as though there is a correlation
- Spurious correlation – correlations are there but they are not actually related; must be very specific and have research to back up correlation to avoid this
(Ex. mozza cheese sales and civil engineer doctorates in an area)
- Does not always make conclusions about which variable influences the other
experimental research
Random assignment to groups – participants are equally likely to be placed in either condition
- Ensures that difference in groups is due to variable
- Prevent confounding/unrelated variables interfering with results
- Can include control group
Pros – Increased experimental control and eliminates more outside influence; tests cause and effect
Cons – artificial with limited generalization to real world situations
Designs:
- Independent variable (IV) – manipulates to distinguish between conditions/groups (ex. depression medication)
- Dependant variable (DV) – observation/measurement recorded and compared (ex. depressive symptoms)
- Between subject – 2 separate groups
Pro – don’t need to worry about “carry over” from previous “level” of independent variable
Cons – can always cause different results even with random assignment - Within subject – same group experience all treatments/levels; comparing between time period instead of people
Pros – allows control for individual differences
Cons – there may be “carry over” - Quasi-experimental – groups are selected based on predetermined characteristics
No random assignment
Ex. testing specific drug – need subjects with specific medical condition
ethical conduct
o Informed consent – agree beforehand or debriefed immediately afterward if deception is required
o Anonymity and confidentiality – or explain why this is absolutely unavoidable
o Collection, storage, and reporting of data – stored separately from identity data
Data must be disclosed – how you use it and what kind of identifying info is involved
o Animal welfare – basic care; minimization of pain or discomfort if it’s necessary
ethics in psych study
Benefits must outweigh the risks
Lot of room for harm in psych – emotionally, mentally, physically
ethics board
Research ethics board (REB) – committee at an institution responsible for protection of human participants
Detailed study must be signed off as ethical
unethical examples
o Freud – unconscious fears in little hands experiment; associated loud noise with bunny, child became afraid of bunny
o Prison experiment – abuse and psychological harm
purpose of statistics
Do these support or reject hypothesis
Organizing data into “big picture”
Are the differences between groups meaningful
descriptive statistics
Techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data
- Frequency
- Central tendency
- Variability
Frequency
the number of observations that fall within category or range of scores
