Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
evolutionary thinking of physiology
A
body’s regulatory mechanisms are a result of millions of years of evolution
2
Q
what do the systems involved in disease have
A
ancient origins
3
Q
what can diseases do in different environments
A
present differently
4
Q
conserved
A
really similar across groups or species
5
Q
example of conserved
A
heart in mammals, birds, reptiles are homologous
6
Q
homology
A
from common origins
7
Q
what is the justification for use of mice and rats in medical research
A
homology
8
Q
physiology
A
mechanistic functions of the body, integrated across molecules to the whole organism
9
Q
what does human physiology link
A
links the science with dysfunctions, pathologies, and therapies/treatments
10
Q
what are the different approaches to physiology
A
mechanistic
teleological
11
Q
mechanistic approach
A
seeks to explain HOW events occur
12
Q
teleological approach
A
seeks to explain WHY events occur
13
Q
which approach to physiology is useful for understanding concepts
A
both
they explain how and why something occurs
example how and why does shivering occur
14
Q
levels of biological organization
A
atom molecule organelle cell tissue organ organ system organism
15
Q
cell
A
basic unit of living things
16
Q
basic function of cell
5
A
energy production, waste elimination, molecule synthesis, transport, reproduction
All functions at the level of cell
17
Q
tissue
A
made of many cells plus extracellular material that perform function
18
Q
organ
A
a structure made up of multiple tissues that performs function
19
Q
organ system
A
collection of different organs performing related functions
20
Q
organism
A
a single individual
21
Q
what is in intracellular (ICF) fluid
A
large amounts of K+, Mg++, phosphate ions, proteins
22
Q
what makes up extracellular (ECF) fluid
A
large amounts of Na+, Cl-, bicarbonate, nutrients (oxygen, glucose, fatty acids), CO2, and other waste products
23
Q
what happens between ICF and ECF
A
balance and interaction of ions and nutrients by transport mechanisms
24
Q
what must be diffused to be balanced for cell function
A
Mg+ and Na+
25
Body fluid
| what is it made up of
ICF (2/3) ECF (1/3)
Interstitial fluid (3/4 of ECF)
Plasma (1/4) of ECF)
26
where is interstitial fluid
surrounds cells, tissues, etc.
27
plasma
liquid portion of blood
28
homeostasis
body at equilibrium
maintenance of relatively constant internal body conditions- despite changes in external environment through a variety of regulatory mechanisms
29
what is a central organizing them in biology
homeostasis
30
what systems are involved with homeostatsis
endocrine and nervous
31
what happens with the loss of homestasis
body compensates can be successful or fail
32
parts of the physiological control systems
1. stimulus
2. sensor
3. control center/integrator
4. effector
1 - 2 - 3 - 4
4 leads to decrease in 1
33
1 stimulus
variable shift out of homeostasis
34
2 sensor (receptor)
structure that detects stimulus
35
3 control center/integrator
structure that determines set point
36
set point
normal range of variable
37
4 effector
structure that generates appropriate response to stimulus in order to return to homeostasis
38
example of control system
| blood pressure
1 stimulus- increase in BP
2 sensor- baro receptors in great arteries of heart detect sensation of stretch
3 control center- brain integrates stimulus and signals for appropriate response
4 effector- heart reduction in HR lowers BP
39
feedback loops
control systems operate one or more feedbacks loops
| can be negative or positive
40
negative feedback loop
most common
| responsible for all physiological regulation
41
positive feedback loop
continued "vicious" cycle
| continues unless ended by major event
42
example negative feedback loop
calcium levels too low
43
example positive feedback loop
labor
44
which feedback loop is rare
| positive or negative
positive
45
negative feedback goal
reduce stimulus to return to homeostasis
46
positive feedback goal
increase stimulus, continual shift away from homeostasis
47
allostasis
process of achieving homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms
48
allostatic load
body "wear and tear" due to allostasis
49
allostatic overload
cumulative cost of wear and tear
| energy demand exceeds supply
50
what leads to pathologies
allostatic overload
51
1 nucleus
contains DNA
| directing protein synthesis
52
2 nucelolus
facilitates ribosome synthesis
53
3 ribosomes (free and attached)
a- ER, free- in cytoplasm
protein synthesis
made up of large (60s) subunit and small (40s) subunit
54
4 rough ER
protein synthesis
lipid synthesis
protein modification in lumen
55
5 smooth ER
lipid synthesis
steroid synthesis
assists with packaging and transport
Ca++ storage and release
56
6 golgi apparatus
process and package products from ER
57
7 mitochondria
ATP production
| comes from cellular respiration
58
8 lysosome
breakdown old organelles and cellular debris
59
9 peroxisome
detoxification of wastes, toxins (ex alcohol)
60
10 plasma membrane
selectively permeable
| amphipathic
61
11 cytoskeleton
structural support
cell movement
cell to cell adhesion
62
12 cytoplasm
area between plasma membrane and nucleus
63
which step(s) of cellular respiration happen in cytoplasm
glycolysis
64
which step(s) of cellular respiration happen in mitochondria
citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
65
amphipathic
has hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties
66
cytosol
liquid surrounding organelles
67
cell cycles
1 mitosis
| 2 meiosis
68
what happens in meosis I
swapping of genetic information
| genetically distinct from each other and parent cell
69
mitosis
1 division
2 daughter cells, genetically identical
somatic cells
2n
70
meiosis
2 divisions
4 daughter cells, genetically distinct
produces gametes (sperm and egg)
n
71
DNA structure
sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate backbone
complimentary nitrogenous bases (linked with hydrogen bonds)
antiparallel strands
double helix
72
differences between RNA and DNA
RNA is single stranded and has uracil instead of thymine
73
what does DNA replication produce
identical DNA for cells during S phase
74
what does it mean when DNA is semiconservative
some of the original is retained
75
DNA replication steps
| enzymes
```
1 helicase
2 topoisomerase
3 primase
4 DNA polymerase
5 DNA ligase
```
76
1 helicase
"unzips" DNA, breaks hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases
77
2 topoisomerase
untwists DNA
78
3 primase
places primer
79
primer
short sequence of RNA that marks starting point of replication
80
4 DNA polymerase
produces new complimentary DNA 5' to 3'
81
leading strand
goes 5' to 3'
82
lagging strand
okazaki fragments
| backwards 3' to 5' so has to work backwards creating these fragments
83
5 DNA ligase
seal gaps between okazaki fragments
84
complimentary DNA nitrogenous bases
C to G
| A to T
85
central dogma of molecular biology
DNA replication to transcription to RNA to translation to proteins
86
replication bubble
an unwound and open region of a DNA helix where DNA replication occurs
87
transcription
DNA to RNA
produces mRNA, copying portion (gene)
mRNA is complimentary, have all info needed
copying of information
88
promoter
starting point of transcription of DNA to RNA
89
terminator
end point of transcription of DNA to RNA
90
how transcription works
1 protein factors bind to DNA at promoter
2 recruitment of RNA polymerase II binding to promoter
3 transcription of gene
91
mRNA processing
1 Introns removed, exons spliced
2 3' Poly- A tail added
3 5' methyl-guanosine gap added
92
intron
non coding region of RNA
93
why do we add a 3' poly- A tail and 5' methyl-guanosine gap
help to stabilize mRNA
94
translation
conversion of mRNA to amino acid chain
95
where does post translational modification of mRNA happen
in RER
96
where is the protein packaged
in golgi apparatus
97
how many gene's affect individual physiology
many genes
98
how does genotype and environment interact
variation in physiological responses
99
what can diffuse through membrane
small, non polar substances
100
what cannot diffuse through membrane
large, polar, or charged molecules,
101
how do molecules get through the membrane if they cannot diffuse
by a protein channel
102
example of molecules that can diffuse
lipids/steroids, O2, CO2, alcohol
103
examples of molecules that cannot diffuse
glucose, amino acids, ions
104
modes of transport
simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
active transport
105
simple diffusion
substances move from area of high concentration to area of low concentration, until equal
106
concentration gradient
area of a lot to area of a little
107
facilitated diffusion
substances diffuse from high concentration to low concentration with help of integral protein channel
108
what is osmosis specific to
water
109
osmosis
water moves to areas with high concentration of solutes
110
what is required for active transport
ATP
111
active transport
| how do substances move in regards to concentration gradient
substances move against concentration gradient
112
secondary active transport
| what does it rely on
movement relies on gradient established from primary active transport
113
what is the primary active transprot
NA+/K+ pump
114
how does the Na+/K+ pump work
1. intracellular 3 Na+ ions bind to pump
2. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP + P, P binds to pump
3. this provides energy to change configuration of the pump, expelling Na+ to the outside
4. two extracellular K+ ions bind to the pump, phosphate group on the pump get released
5. pump changes back to its original configuration
6. K+ is released inside the cell and the cycle repeats
115
what does the concentration gradient created by Na+/K+ pump do
what does it power?
what is it important for
helps maintain resting membrane potential
powers secondary active transport
important for neurons and muscle fiber function
116
what is resting membrane potential
relative difference in charge across plasma membrane
117
ATP as an energy source
energy stored in bonds between phosphate groups
118
what happens during hydrolysis to ATP
ATP to ADP+P which releases energy for use
119
secondary active transport
| name a secondary active transport
SGLT
| sodium glucose transporter
120
SGLT
| how does the SGLT work
set up by Na+/K+ concentration gradient
uses downhill Na+ gradient to move glucose against concentration
Na+ and glucose enter together
121
what does cell communication rely on
| what is cell communication used for
chemical signals for cells to communicate
| chemical bioregulation to help maintain homeostasis
122
what 3 systems work together for cell communication
immune, nervous, and endocrine
| all interact
123
5 categories of chemical messengers/signaling
```
1 intracrine
2 autocrine
3 paracrine
4 endocrine
5 exocrine
```
124
1 intracrine communication
chemical signal produced in the cell and it regulates intracellular activity of that cell
125
2 autocrine communication
chemical signal produced in the cell, signal binds to receptor on the membrane of that cell
126
3 paracrine communication
chemical signal that affects an adjacent cell
127
where is paracrine communication commonly seen
with neurons
128
4 endocrine communication
chemical signal (hormone) that enters the bloodstream and travels to "distant" target cell within the body
129
5 exocrine communication
chemical signal that leave the body and is detected by a different individual
130
example of exocrine communication
pheromone
131
what kind of signal communication is neurotransmitter
paracrine
132
what kind of signal communication is neuromodulator
paracrine
133
what kind of signal communication is neurohormone
endocrine
134
chemical messenger
any substance produced by a cell that affects the function of the cell
135
cytokine
chemical messenger that evokes proliferation of other cells, especially in the immune system
136
hormone
a chemical messenger that is released into the bloodstream that affects the function of a target cells some distance from the source
137
neurotransmitter
a chemical messenger secreted by a neuron into the synaptic space
138
neuromodulator
a chemical messenger secreted by a neuron into the synaptic space and adjusts the sensitivity of target to other neurotransmitters
139
neurohormone
a hormone produced by a neuron, travels through bloodstream
140
long distance communication
what systems help accomplish
what must target have
accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems
| target must have receptor for chemical signal
141
where are cell connections present
at lateral or basilar sufaces
142
desmosomes
bind cells together
143
tight junctions
forms "tight seal", creates permeability barrier
144
what does cell connection do
can enhance their communication
145
gap junction
channel allowing cell communication via ions
146
intercalated disk
projections that hold cells together
147
receptors
what is it
what does it bind
what does it produce
protein molecules located on cell surface or interior
bind specific ligands in specific target tissues
produce a biological effect
148
how do signal molecules work
```
signal molecule
BINDS TO
receptor protein
ACTIVATES
intracellular signal molecules
ALTER
target proteins
CREATE
response
```
149
ligand
any chemical signal
150
properties of receptors
the most important factor for a cell responding to a ligand is if it has appropriate receptors to which ligand can bind
specificity
affinity
receptors undergo a conformational change when bound by a ligand
151
what happens if a cell doesn't have a receptor for a ligand
if it does not have receptors for that ligand, no effect will occur
152
where can receptors be
intracellular
or
on the cell membrane
153
where are receptors found if the are intracellular
in cytosol or nucleus
154
specificity
receptors distinguish their ligands from others
155
affinity
strength of binding, how much wants to bind
156
conformational change
can change shape, structure
157
what happens when a ligand is bound
| what is activated
activation of biochemical pathways within the cell
| conformational change
158
cells response to being bound occurs via
via modified protiens
159
what does a modified protein alter activity of
1 metabolic enzymes
2 motor proteins for muscle contraction or cytoskeletal movement
3 proteins that regulate gene activity
4 membrane transport and receptor proteins
160
signal transduction
| how it works
1 extracellular signal ligand activates a receptor
| 2 transmission of signal to the intracellular environment via biochemical activity to produce a cellular response
161
what happens to the signal during signal transduction
signal is transduced and amplified
162
where are ion channels located
in plasma membrane
163
types of ion channels
voltage- gated ion channel
| ligand- gated ion channel
164
voltage gated ion channel
opens or closes in response to a change in cellular charge
165
ligand gated ion channel
open or close in response to presence or absence of a chemical signal
166
explain how ion gated channel works
| ligand gated
1 gate closed, inactive, no ligand bound and gate closed
2 ligand will bind to the receptor portion
3 active state, ligand bound gate opens, allows ions to enter, leads to a response in the cell
3 to 1 ligand dissociates/ unbinds from receptor
1 to 2 to 3 to 1
167
intracellular receptors
| how it works
signaling molecule has to diffuse through and then bind to its receptor
whole complex travels to nucleus
bind to the DNA and
acts like a transcription factors
168
hormone
```
chemical substance produced in a specialized gland (endocrine gland)
released into bloodstream
transported to (sometimes) distant target cells/tissues to elicit a response
```
169
hormone pathways and interactions
physiological control system
| stimulus, multiple control systems, response in target tissue
170
general features of the endocrine system
glands
| hormones can be up regulated or down regualted
171
development of glands
| what kind of glands are developed
endocrine and exocrine glands
172
where are glands derived from
epithelium
173
what are exocrine glands
hollow center with duct
174
what are endocrine glands
ductless- no link to parent epithelium
| highly vascularized
175
hormone binding basics
| what does hormone interact with
interact with cell with appropriate receptor
176
hormone receptors
| what are they specific to
usually specific to a single hormones or hormone classes
177
example of hormone receptor specificity
T and DHT bind to androgen receptor
| estrogen receptor have alpha, beta, and gamma
178
up regulation
cell makes more of a certain receptor, makes cell more sensitive to hormone
179
down regulation
cell reduces a certain receptor, makes cell less sensitive to hormone
180
3 major classes of hormones
| based on structure
steroid hormones
peptide hormones
amine hormones
181
steroid hormones
| derived from
derived from cholesterol, lipid based,
182
example of steroid hormones
testosterone (T)
estradiol (E2)
cortisol
183
peptide hormones
| made of
chains of amino acids
184
example of peptide hormones
many
insulin
growth hormone
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
185
Amine hormones
| derived from
derived from a single specific amino acids
186
what amino acids can amine hormones be produced from
tyrosine
| tryptophan
187
example of amine hormones
thyroid hormones
monoamines
serotonin
epinephrine
188
peptide hormone synthesis
made in advance, stored in secretory vesicles
189
peptide hormone receptor location
cell membrane
190
steroid hormone synthesis
synthesized on demand from precursors
191
steroid hormone receptor location
cytoplasm or nucleus; some have membrane receptors also
192
amine hormone synthesis
made in advance, stored in secretory vesicles,
193
amine hormone receptor location
cell membrane or nucleus
194
types of cell connections
desmosomes
tight junctions
gap junctions
intercalated disks
195
what are hormone classes based on
structure
196
1 cell membrane
hormone receptor location
response
fast response (seconds to minutes)
197
what hormones has receptors on the cell membrane
peptides and most amine
198
2 intracellular
hormone receptor location
response
slower response (20-90 minutes)
199
what hormones have receptors intraclelular
steroid and thyroid hormones
200
g protein coupled receptors
cross plasma membrane 7 times, has 3 protein subunits and a GDP molecule bound to the alpha subunit
201
what are the 3 protein subunits on a g protein coupled receptor
alpha, beta, gamma
202
what is bound to a protein subunit alpha on an inactive protein coupled receptor
molecule GDP
203
what is a g protien
alpha, beta, gamma protein subunits and bound GDP to alpha subunit
204
what happens when a g protein coupled receptor is bound by a ligand
conformational change
205
what happens when a ligand leaves a g protein coupled receptor
goes back to resting state, inactive
206
what other molecules are present in the g protein coupled receptor process
1 adenylyl cyclase
2 cAMP (cyclic AMP)
3 protein kinase A
207
2nd messenger
intracrine communication
208
adenylyl cyclase
amplifier enzyme
209
cAMP
produced from ATP, 2nd messenger
210
protein kinase A
type of kinase
| phosphorylates protein
211
steps of G protein coupled receptor signal transduction pathway
1 ligand binds to receptor
2 GTP replaces GDP on alpha subunit, alpha subunit dissociates
3 alpha subunit activates adenylyl cyclase
4 adenylyl cyclase produces cAMP from ATP
5 cAMP activates protein kinase A
6 protein kinase A phosphorylates intracellular proteins
7 response in the cell
212
example of cell membrane receptor
g protein coupled receptor
213
does a ligand for an intracellular receptor have to enter the cell
yes
214
what does the activated steroid receptor do
initiates transcription
215
what do you get from an activated steroid receptor
production of new proteins
| response in cell
216
is the relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary important
yes
217
what does the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary form
regulatory complex
| serve as regulatory system for many functions
218
how does the hypothalamus and pituitary regulatory system work
1 hypothalamus secretes neurohormone
2 neurohormone travels to anterior lobe of pituitary
3 pituitary secretes hormones in response
4 hormones travel to other endocrine structures or target tissues to produce a response
219
what percentage of the pancreas is endocrine cells
2%
220
where are the endocrine cells in the pancreas found
islets of Langerhans
221
what type of cells are in the islets of Langerhans
Beta cells
Alpha cells
D cells
F cells
222
what percentage of Beta cells are in the Islets of Langerhans
75%
223
what does beta cells produce
insulin
224
what percentage of Alpha cells are in the Islets of Langerhans
20
225
what does alpha cells produce
glucagon
226
what percentage of D cells are in the Islets of Langerhans
4
227
what does D cells produce
somatostatin
228
what percentage of F cells are in the Islets of Langerhans
1
229
what does F cells produce
pancreatic polypeptide
230
why is insulin unique
only hormone to reduce blood glucose
231
pancreas in terms of endocrine function
glucose homeostasis
232
what happens if glucose is high
insulin released, induces target cells to take up glucose
| blood glucose levels go down as a result
233
what does glucose do
major source of energy
| breakdown for ATP
234
is glucose important for cellular function
yes
235
what happens if glucose is low
glucagon is released, induces release of glucose from target cells
blood glucose levels go up as a result
236
what produces insulin
beta cells in islets of Langerhans
237
what is insulin needed for
normal growth and development
238
what is the only hormone that lowers blood glucose
insulin
239
what type of hormone is insulin
peptide hormone
240
what is the stimulus for secretion of insulin
increased glucose in blood
241
what target tissues does insulin act on
liver, muscle, and adipose tissue
242
what type of muscle does insulin affect
skeletal
243
what does the the enhanced uptake of glucose by cells do
lowers blood glucose levels
244
what can skeletal muscle do during exercise
pull in glucose
245
what does insulin do at its target tissues
enhances uptake of glucose by cells
246
what does insulin do
| initiates what
initiate facilitated diffusion through glucose transport protein (GLUTs)
247
what happens if insulin is absent
unregulated glucose levels
hyperglycemia
can cause neural shock
248
diabetes mellitus
type 1
type 2
gestational diabetes
249
type 1 diabetes
autoimmune destruction of beta cells, no insulin production
250
type 2 diabetes
receptors for insulin are non-functional (insulin resistance)
initial upregulation of insulin secretion followed by reduction of insulin secretion
251
which type of diabetes has a strong genetic disposition
type 2
252
gestational diabetes
insulin resistance or reduction of insulin during pregnancy
253
where is glucagon produced
alpha cells
254
what is the target tissues of glucagon
liver and adipose tissue
255
what does glucagon do
induces glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and lipolysis
| increases blood glucose
256
what is glucagon to insulin
antagonistic
| opposite action to insulin
257
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen into glucose,
258
lysis
breakdown
259
gluconeogenesis
producing glucose
260
lipolysis
breakdown of fats
