Exam 1 Flashcards
(284 cards)
1
Q
Define homeostasis
A
The balance of the bodies internal environment, due to the functions of the regulatory process
2
Q
What are the four ways our cells communicate throughout the body?
A
- Direct Communication
- Paracrine Communication
- Endocrine Communication
- Synaptic Communication
3
Q
Define; Direct Communication. How limited is it?
A
Communication between two cells of the same type through chemicals
It is the most limited; info shared between two like cells
4
Q
Where does communication of cells occur during direct communication?
A
Gap Junctions
5
Q
Define: Gap Junctions
A
Regions between two cells that permit the movement of ions, solutes or lipid soluble materials from one cell to the other
6
Q
What kind of cells use gap junctions to communicate?
A
Epithelial and cardiac cells
7
Q
Define: Paracrine Communication. How limited is it?
A
Communication to neighboring cells within the same tissue, through information in the form of cellular chemicals which gets released into surrounding extracellular fluid.
Semi limited; info travels within same tissue
8
Q
When does paracrine communication mainly occur?
A
During inflammation with prostaglandins
9
Q
Define: Endocrine Communication. How limited is it?
A
Cells release chemical hormones directly into he bloodstream which traces throughout the body
Least limited; info travels throughout body
10
Q
Define: Target Cells
A
Specialized cells that hormones attach to by the cell’s receptors, they essentially receive the information, read it and later react as needed.
11
Q
*What do hormones do?
A
Can alter metabolism of multiple tissues or entire organs
12
Q
How long do effects of hormones last?
A
Up to a few days
13
Q
When are observational effects of hormones at their greatest?
A
During pregnancy & puberty
14
Q
*Define: Synaptic Communication. How limited is it?
A
Communication to adjacent neurons or muscle cells that have specific receptors for the neurotransmitter
Limited communication; due to specific receptors necessary
15
Q
0
A
o
16
Q
What is a major characteristic of communication within the endocrine system that is unlike other systems?
A
Chemicals (aka hormones) are released directly into the bloodstream
17
Q
How are the endocrine glands different from exocrine glands?
A
Exocrine glands secrete info into ducts where as endocrine glands secrete info into the bloodstream
18
Q
Hormones are secreted into ______, where as paracrine factors are secreted into _____.
A
Bloodstream/ Interstitial (extracellular) fluid
19
Q
What parts of the body produce hormones?
A
Brain, Pancreas, Reproductive Organs & Thyroid
20
Q
What are the three classes of hormones? & What are they made of?
A
- Amino Acid Derivatives –> Proteins
- Peptide Hormones –> Proteins
- Lipid Derivaties –> Lipids
21
Q
What type of solute are lipids vs proteins?
A
Lipids = NOT water soluble Proteins = water soluble
22
Q
What are Amino Acid Derivatives
A
Small molecules that are structurally related to amino acids
23
Q
_____ are the building blocks of proteins
A
Amino Acids
24
Q
What are peptide hormones?
A
Chains of amino acids
25
What are the two groups of peptide hormones?
Glycoproteins & other than glycoproteins
26
What are the two groups of lipid derivatives. Describe them.
1. Eicosaniods: small molecules with a five-carbon ring at one end
2. Steroid Hormones: Lipids derived from cholesterol
27
What are two examples of Eicosanoids? What do they do? How are they released?
1. Leukotrienes (Leuko means white): Released by WBCs to coordinate a response to injury or disease
2. Prostaglandins: Produced in most issues of the body. Secreted by injured cells or tissue causing more blood flow (swelling).
28
Steroid hormones include _____ hormones.
Sex
29
Androgen, Estrogen, and Progestins are __________.
Sex hormones
30
Androgens are secreted by ________, creating ________. Where as Estrogens & progestins are secreted by _______, creating _______ & _______.
Testes; testosterone
| Ovaries; estrogen & progesterone
31
What happens once hormones are released into the blood stream?
They circulate freely or bind to a special carrier protein
32
Usually how long do hormones stay in the bloodstream?
Less than one hour
33
How are hormones removed from the bloodstream?
Two ways:
1. They bind to receptor proteins of target cells in the liver or kidney
or
2.They're broken down by enzymes in the blood plasma or interstitial fluid
34
What carries hormones to their destination?
Special carrier proteins
35
What endocrine glands are int he brain?
Hypothalamus, Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland
36
What endocrine glands are in the neck?
Thyroid & Parathyroid glands
37
What endocrine glands are in the thoracic cavity
The heart and thymus
38
What endocrine glands are in the abdominal pelvis cavities
Kidney, adrenal glands, digestive track, pancreas, gonads, adapts tissue
39
How long can hormones stay in circulation once bonded to special carrier proteins?
Months (but not likely)
40
Where are receptors for target cells located?
1. On the plasma membrane (Extracellular Receptors)
| 2. Within the cytoplasm (Intracellular Receptors)
41
Extracellular Receptors are accessible to ______. Where as Intracellular Receptors are accessible to ________. Why is this?
Water-soluble hormones, bc they cannot pass through a plasma membrane
Lipid-soluble hormones, bc they can pass through the the plasma membrane
42
Which receptors, extracellular or intracellular, react faster on the cell? Why?
Intracellular Receptors, because since they're lipid-soluble they pass through the cell membrane fast & easy!
43
T or F: Hormones binding to intracellular receptors can directly affect activities inside the cell
False! There are first & second messengers needed to share the information brought in by the hormone
44
What are the three types of second messengers? What are they derivatives of?
1. Cyclic-AMP (cAMP): Derivative of ATP
2. Cyclic-GMP (cGMP): Derivative of GTP
3. Calcium ions
45
What is the role of G protein?
It is the link between the first and second messenger
46
What happens when G protein is activated?
- Activates adenylate cyclase, converts ATP to celiac-AMP
- Cylic-AMP then activates kinase
- Kinase accelerate metabolic activity of target cell by opening ion channels, activating enzymes
47
What deactivates the second messenger to prevent the cell from burning out?
Phosphodiesterase (PDE)
48
What does protein kinase c (PKC) do?
Opens up the calcium ion channels allowing extracellular calcium ions to enter the cell (Gatekeeper)
49
What are endocrine reflexes mainly for?
Control hormone secretion of heart, pancreas, parathyroid glands and digestive tract to maintain homeostasis
50
What does the hypothalamus secrete?
Regulatory hormones, epinephrin & norepinephrine
51
What are regulatory hormones? What secretes them?
Special hormones that control endocrine cells in the adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) of the pituitary gland
Secreted by hypothalamus
52
What are three jobs of the hypothalamus?
1. Secrete regulatory hormones to control activity of pituitary gland
2. Produce ADH and Oxytocin
3. Secretes epinephrin and norepinephrine causing adrenalin; control of sympathetic output of adrenal medulla
53
Which endocrine organ synthesizes and transports hormones along axons within the infundibulum of the pituitary gland, to the posterior lobe where its released into the bloodstream?
hypothalamus
54
What is the pituitary gland
A small, oval endocrine gland
Contains two parts.
55
Name the lobes of the pituitary gland. How are they are distinctly different? How many peptide hormones do they each secrete?
Adenohypophysis- anterior lobe of pituitary gland. This part is larger and darker. Secretes 7 peptide hormones
Neurohypophysis- Posterior lobe of pituitary gland. This part is smaller and lighter stained. Secretes 2 peptide hormones
56
What separates the anterior pituitary gland from the posterior?
The Pars Intermedia
57
What is the Hypophyseal Portal System?
A capillary network that radiates through the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) which gives every endocrine cell immediate access to the circulatory system
58
What is the name of the capillaries in the Hypophyseal Portal System?
Fenestrated Capillaries
59
What does fenestrated mean? Why is it important?
Means large pores, this allows hormones to easily pass through to the blood system
60
List the hormones, that are secreted from the Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary), their abbreviations, what they're secreted by and their jobs..... go!
1. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Job: Stimulates thyroid gland to transport iodine ions which then bind together to create T3 (Thyroxine) or T4 (Triiodothyronine)
Secreted by: Thyroid Gland
2. Adrenocorticotroptic Hormone (ACTH)
Job: Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucorticoids (a steroid hormone that increases glucose levels in the body)
Secreted by: Adrenal Glands
3. Follicle- Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Job: Promotes growth of follicles in females & males. In combo with LH it stimulates secretion of estrogen in females. It'll also stimulate nurse cells in males which help care for the development of sperm cells
Secreted by: Ovaries & Testes
4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Job: induces ovulation & promotes secretion of estrogen & progestins for females. For males it stimulates product of sex hormones (androgens)
Secreted by: Ovaries & Testes
5. Prolactin (PRL)
Job: Stimulates mammary gland development & milk production during & after pregnancy
Secreted by: ?
6. Growth Hormone (GH)
Job: Stimulates cell growth in size and # by accelerating the rate of protein synthesis
Secreted by: ?
7. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
Job: Stimulates the melanocytes of the skin, increasing production of melanin
Secreted by: ?
61
List the hormones secreted by the Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), their abbreviations, jobs and
1. Antidiure Hormone (ADH)
Job: Decrease the amount of water lost in the kidneys in order to increase the blood pressure (Hold of water)
Secreted by:
2.Oxytocin (OXT)
Job:
Females: Targets smooth muscle contractions (helps during labor & delivery)
Males: Ejaculation of sperm & gland secretion into the urethra
Secreted by: uterus and nipples for females and urethra for men
62
What trigger the release of ADH?
Released due to increase or decrease in blood volume/pressure
63
Diabetes is a condition due to a lack of ________. Causing ______ loss. Resulting in what prominent 4 side effects?
Antidiure Hormone (ADH)
Water loss
Causes: thirst, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, & death
64
Too much water loss leading to dehydration is called
Polyuria
65
What Endocrine Gland synthesizes a protein called thyroglobulin?
The Thyroid Gland
66
Thyroglobulin can attach to ___ or ____ iodine ions.
3 or 4
67
______ is formed when Thyroglobulin attaches to 3 iodide ions. Where as ______ is formed when Thyroglobulin attaches to 4 iodide ions
3 iodine ions + thyroglobulin = triiodothyronine (T3)
| 4 iodine ions + thyroglobulin = thyroxine (T4)
68
Where do iodine ions come from?
Ingested food
69
What is the function of thyroid hormones? What does this help with?
Increases ATP production leading to more energy & metabolic rate of cells;
Helps skeletal, muscular and nervous system development in growing children
70
A deficiency of triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) or Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is called _______. The symptoms are _____, ______, & ______ sensitivity.
Hyperthyroidism (Aka Myxedema)
| eyes bulge, swollen legs, heat sensitivity
71
What is the purpose of parafollicular cells (c-cells)?
To secrete hormone calcitonin (CT) which decreases calcium ion concentrations in the body and deposits them to the bone
72
What are the characteristics and location of Adrenal Glands?
Pyramid-shaped glands located on the superior surface of the kidneys
73
What is a major characteristic of endocrine glands?
They're all vascular; contain vessels
74
What are the three major layers of the Adrenal Gland?
Capsule
Cortex
Medulla
75
How many parts are in the adrenal cortex?
3
76
What are the names and attributes of the three parts of the adrenal cortex? What do they each produce?
1. Zona Glomerulosa:
- Outer most layer
- Produces mineralocorticoids
2. Zona Fasciculata:
- Middle layer
- Produces steroid hormones; glucocorticoids
3. Zona Reticularis
- Deepest layer
- Produces small amounts of androgens
77
What happens to androgens once they're put into the blood stream?
They turn into estrogen
78
What are mineralocorticoids?
Hormones that affect the electrolyte composition of the bodies fluids
79
Mineralocorticoid is produced by Zona ______, the _____ layer of the adrenal gland? What is the main mineralocorticoid? What does it do?
Zona Glomerulosa, the outer most layer
Aldosterone:
- Stimulates the conservation of sodium ions
- Eliminates potassium ions at the kidney, pancreas, sweat glands, & salivary glands
- Helps with reabsorption of sodium
80
Glucocorticoid is produce by Zona _____, the ____ layer of the adrenal gland. What is the main glucocorticoid? What does it do? What is broken down in this process
Zona Fasciculata, middle layer
Cortisol:
- Increases glucose in the blood
- Releases fatty acids & protein into the blood for immediate energy cells by BREAKING DOWN ADIPOS TISSUE
81
What is needed to produce ATP?
Glucose
82
When are glucocorticoids released?
During stress
83
______ syndrom causes striae, muscle weakness, hairloss, buffalo hump, moon face, and hirsutism.
Cushing Syndrome
84
How is Cushing syndrome caused? What unnatural thing can cause this? What does this lead to in the pituitary gland?
When extra ACTH is secreted by the pituitary gland, glucocorticoid is released (essentially excess cortisol)
Use of synthetic glucocorticoids can cause this as well
Leads to a tumor on the pituitary gland
85
What are the affects of the Zona Reticularis on both men and women? Which of the two sex does it effect the most?
Men & Women: Stimulates pubic hair growth in adolescences
Women only: Promotes muscle mass, blood cell formation & libido (sexual desires) support
Effects women more
86
What part of the Adrenal Gland contains large, round cells with preganglionic sympathetic fibers?
Adrenal Medulla
87
The adrenal medulla secrets _____, ___% of the time & ______, _____% of the time. Both of which are essentially _______.
Epinephrine 80% of the time
Norepinephrine 20% of the time
Adrenalin
88
What kind of cells are most cells in the body?
Target cells
89
What is the function of the Adrenal Medulla?
Increase cardiac activity, & blood pressure
Breaks down blood glucose levels
Releases lipids by adipose tissue
90
The Pineal Gland is apart of the _____ and contains _____ cells.
Epithalamus / pinealocytes cells
91
What hormones do pinealocytes releases?
Melatonin
92
Which cells are influenced by visual pathways? What happens if it is dark around you?
Pinealocytes cells
| Causes more melatonin production = you get sleepy!
93
Which organ is both an exocrine & endocrine gland?
Pancreas
94
What does the pancreas do? Is this its exocrine or endocrine side?
Produces digestive enzymes that are sent to small intestine through a main DUCT
Exocrine side!
95
What does the pancreas contain? Is this its exocrine or endocrine side?
Islets
| Endocrine side!
96
Alpha cells produce the hormone ____. Where beta cells produce _____.
Glucagon/Insulin
97
What is the name of the peptide hormone that is released into the bloodstream when blood-glucose levels exceed "normal levels"
Insulin
98
What are considered "normal" blood-glucose levels?
70- 110 mg/dl
99
What are some examples of cells that are insulin dependent?
Brain
Kidney
GI tract lining
RBCs
100
What is secreted when glucose levels fall below normal?
Glucagon
101
How does glucagon help the body out? How does it do this?
1. Increases the amount of glucose in the blood
| 2. Breaks down glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells
102
Gluconeogenesis is a process that takes....
amino acids or fats, and converts them to glucose
103
Non carbohydrate precursors are ____
fats
104
What are the two types of Diabetes Mellitus?
Type one: born without, or have no, beta cells. Rely on insulin injections
Type two: Insulin receptors on the cell's membrane are desensitized causing the glucose to stay in the blood
-Caused by bad appetite and habits
105
What 3 hormones are made by the kidneys?
Calcitriol, Erythopoietin & Renin
106
What is calcitriol?
A steroid that is secreted in response to the presence of PTH
107
What does calcitriol do?
- Stimulates absorption of calcium & phosphate ions in the GI tract
- Forms osteoclasts
- Helps reabsorb calcium ions in kidneys
- Supresses PTH production
108
What is Erythropoietin?
A peptide hormone that is released when there is low oxygen levels in the kidney tissue
109
What does Erythropoietin do?
Stimulates production of red blood cells in bone marrow
110
When is Renin released?
When there is a decrease of blood flow through the kidneys
111
What does Renin do?
Converts hormone angiotensnogen to angiotensin one
112
What is the difference between Angiotensin One and Angiotensin Two?
Angiotensin One goes to the lungs where its converted to Angiotensin Two.
Angiotensin Two stimulate secretion of aldosterone from adrenal cortex to absorb sodium & water to help increase blood pressure.
113
What is a similarity of both Angiotensin One and Angiotensin Two?
They both restrict salt & water loss at kidneys increasing thirst, blood pressure and blood volume
114
What hormone does the heart make, and how?
Natriuretic Peptide by stretching
115
What hormone does the heart make, and how? What is the ultimate goal of doing this?
Natriuretic Peptide by stretching
Goal: lower blood pressure and volume
116
Why is Natriuretic Peptide made?
To promote water and sodium ions loss at the kidneys and inhibit the secretion of aldosterone and ADH
117
What hormone does the thymus secrete? Why?
Thymosin Hormone
| To promote development and maturation of lymphocytes (or T-cells)
118
What are lymphocytes (aka T-cells) responsible for?
Immune system
119
Gonads are ____ in the _____ that produce the two hormones _____ & _______.
Cells/ testes / androgen & testosterone
120
What do gonads do for men vs women?
Men:
Create nurse cells in testes that take car of sperm
Women:
Produce estrogen
121
Nurse cells secrete ______.
Inhibin
122
What is the main estrogen? What is it function?
Estradiol
Maintains post-pubescent sex characteristics including breast development, changes in body shape, affecting bones, and fat depositions
123
Leptin is released when? What does this help with?
We eat/ supresses our appetite
124
What are the three main functions of blood?
Transportation
Regulation
Protection
125
Blood temperature is roughly ____
100.4 F
126
Blood is ____ when saturated with water
Bright red
127
Blood pH is between ____ and ____
7.35 - 7.45
128
Blood is ____ % plasma and ____ % Formed elements
55% plasma
| 45% formed elements
129
Plasma is ____ % proteins, ____ % other solutes and _____ % water
7% proteins
1. 5% other solutes
91. 5% water
130
Formed elements have ___ number of platelets
400,000
131
Formed elements have ___ number of WBCs
5,000 - 10,000
132
Formed elements have ___ number of RBCs
4.9 -5.4 million
133
Which two formed elements do not have a nucleus?
RBCs & Platelets
134
____ are the name of formed element that is merely parts of cells
Platelets
135
Which WBCs have 3-5 lobes to their nuclei and are granular?
Neutrophil
136
Which (WBCs) leukocytes have a bilobed nucleus and contain deep red granules?
Eosinophils
137
Which (WBCs) leukocytes have deep blue granules and a hidden nucleus by these granules?
Basophils
138
Which (WBCs) leukocytes are very large and have a oval kidney bean shaped nucleus?
Monocytes
139
Which (WBCs) leukocytes have a large round nucleus with a think halo of cytoplasm?
Lymphocytes
140
How many cells are in the human body?
75 Trillion
141
What does the cardiovascular system include?
The heart, blood vessels & blood
142
What is the cardiovascular system's main functions?
Delivers necessary materials (O2) to all cells in the body
143
What is bloods primary function?
Transportation of gasses, nutrients, hormones and metabolic wastes
144
What are the four functions of blood?
1. Regulates bodies Ph
2. Restricts fluid loss by clotting
3. Immunity by caring antibodies and WBCs
4. Stabilizes body temperature by absorbing excess heat and distributing it elsewhere ( When you get too cold and your fingers and toes go numb so your brain and organs stay warm)
145
What is bloods normal ph range?
7.35 -7.45
146
What is the name of the matrix in blood?
Plasma
147
What 3 types of formed elements make up blood? What are each of their functions?
RBC: Transports O2 around the body
WBC: Bodies main defense and immunity
Platelets: Contains enzymes for blood clotting
148
Hemopoiesis is?
The production of formed elements
149
(T or F) Platelets are cells
False! They are only cell fragments
150
What does whole blood consist of?
Plasma and elements ( what we see when we get cut)
151
What is the average temperature of whole blood?
100.4 F
152
Blood is ____ times more viscous than water
5 times
153
Venipuncture is a procedure where ______
Blood is collected for analysis from a superficial vein (drawing blood)
154
(T or F) Veins have thicker walls than arteries
False! Its the other way around, arteries have thicker walls than veins
155
What are the three major proteins found in blood plasma? What do they do?
1. Albumins: Maintain water content in blood
2. Globulins: has antibodies and transport globulins
3. Fibrinogen: Converted to Fibrin to clot wounds
156
Erythropoiesis is....
The formation of RBCs in bone marrow
157
What makes RBC deep red in color? Why
O2, because RBC have Hemoglobin in them which are naturally sticky to oxygen and help the RBC carry it
158
A rouleau is a ______ of RBCs
Stack
159
RBCs have a life span of _____ days
120
160
RBC & Platelets have no ____ but WBCs do
Nucleus
161
Hemoglobin is made up of two _____ and two _____ of ______
2 Alpha chains & 2 beta chains of polypeptides
162
Heme is responsible for ______.
binding to O2
163
What can carry 1 billion O2 molecules at once?
Hemoglobin
164
_____ is the condition where Hb (hemoglobin) levels are low and decrease delivery of O2 to peripheral tissues
Anemia
165
What are the symptoms of Anemia?
Weakness, fatigue and confusion
166
How many miles does a RBC travel in the 120 days of its life?
700 miles
167
How long does it take for a single RBC to travel from the heart to tissue and back
Less than a min, roughly 30 seconds
168
What ways do RBCs die? (Use the technical term) Which way is better?
(Sudden) 1. Hemolysis: The rupture of RBCs plasma membrane in blood stream
(Overtime & Recycled) 2. Autolysis: Broken down in liver, spleen & bone marrow
169
_____ is a condition due to Hemolysis where hemoglobin is released into the ruin causing it to turn red or brown. The symptoms of this are renal cancer, infection, burns or malaria
Hemoglobinuria
170
____ is the presence of RBCs in urine due to kidney or vessel damage along urinary tract
Hematuria
171
____ breaks down RBCs when they're old
WBCs
172
____ & _____ polypeptide chains are broken down from RBCs into _____. This is then reused by different cells.
Alpha & Beta / Amino- Acids
173
During the breakdown process of RBCs what is stripped from Heme? What is it then converted to?
Iron / biliverdin
174
_____ is an organic compound with a yellow- orange pigment ( bruises)
Bilirubin
175
What does bile do?
Breaks down fat we eat into smaller pieces
176
What causes Jaundice? What is a distinct color of this?
Blockage of bile ducts, or liver damage, causing bilirubin (aka bile) to not be absorbed and therefore released into the bloodstream. Yellow pigment
177
____ binds to iron removed from Heme in the breakdown of RBCs. Its job is to transform iron.
Transferrin
178
What in blood is toxic to the cells?
Iron
179
If someone has low ____ levels, you know they're iron defiant
Ferritin
180
What is essential to create RBCs?
Amino acids, vitamins, iron, B12
181
How is B12 obtained?
Dairy & red meat
182
What causes Pernicious anemia?
B12 Deficiency
183
EPO Erythropoietin is important to the production of _____
RBCs
184
What is the main difference between Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies vs Anti-Rh?
Anti-RH can cross the placenta where Anti A & Anti B cant
185
Whit blood cells are aka ______
Leukocytes
186
What are the functions of WBCs?
Immunity of the body
| Remove toxins, wastes & abnormal/ damaged cells
187
What are the two classes of WBC and there types?
Granulocytes:
-Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
Agranulocytes:
-Monocytes & Lymphocytes
188
If RBCs are out of blood vessels this means what?
There was an injury
189
The act of WBCs following chemicals that are released by pathogens is called _______.
Postive Chemotaxis
190
List the five types of WBCs, what percentage of WBCs they make up, some distinct characteristics of them, and their main function
Neutrophil:
- 50% of WBCs
- Has a 3-5 lobe nucleus
- Has granules
- Function: Defense enzyme! Digests broken down bacteria
Lymphocyte:
- 30% of WBCs
- Has large nucleus, almost size of cell
- Functions: Rely on these to stay healthy
Monocyte:
- 8% of WBCs
- Kidney shaped nucleus
Eosinophil:
- 2% of WBCs
- Has granules
- Bi-lobed nucleus
- Function: Attacks pathogens
Basophils:
- > 1 % of WBCs
- Many granules, cant see nucleus
- Prevents blood clotting
191
Phagocytosis is a means of how ____ engulf bacteria
Neutrophils
192
Which WBC is highly mobile & "first responder" at site of injury
Neutrophils
193
Basophil's granules contain ______ & _____. What do they help with?
Histamine: causes vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels increasing blood pressure)
Heparin: Prevents blood clotting
194
What are the three types of lymphocytes? What do they each help with?
T cells: Helps cell immunity
B cells: Helps hormonal immunity
Natural Killer Cells: Helps immune surveillance
195
What are Leukopenia and Leukocytosis? What medical conditions do they cause?
Leukopenia: not enough WBCs in body -Anemic (sick all the time)
Leukocytosis: Too many WBCs in the body - cancers ( Leukemia/ infections )
196
____ is the production of WBCs
Leukopoiesis
197
Hemocytoblasts produce ____ & _____ stem cells
Myeloid & lymphoid stem cells
198
Platelets are ______, that help in the ____ process. They have a life span of ____ days.
Cell fragments / clotting process/ 9-12 days
199
Where are large amounts of platelets stored? Why there?
Spleen, for a circulatory crisis
200
Thrombocytopoiesis is the production of _____
Platelets
201
Megakaryocytes fragment into tiny pieces creating ____ # of _____.
4000/ platelets
202
How do platelets initiate the clotting process?
Platelets release chemicals and enzymes
203
A platelet plus is a _____
Temporary patch in walls of damaged area
204
Platelets contain ____ & _____
Actin & Myosin
205
What is the sensation of bleeding called?
Hemostasis
206
What are the 3 phases of bleeding? Briefly describe what occurs during each phase.
1. Vascular Phase: Vascular spasm occurs, cut vessel will constrict for 30 min to lesson blood loss
2. Platelets Phase: Platelets attach to injured area and form a platelet plug, occurs 15 sec after injury
3. Coagulation Phase: Fibrin (a mesh) is made to cover platelet plug creating blood clot
207
What cell secretes chemicals and hormones to promote vascular spasm after a cut?
Endothelial cells
208
_____ transforms into fibrin to cover platelet plug
Fibrinogen
209
Thrombus is a technical term for a _____-
blood clot
210
Clotting depends on ___ & ____
Clotting factors and proenzymes
211
What are the three pathways needed in the formation of Fibrin?
1. Extrinsic Pathway
2. Intrinsic Pathway
3. Common Pathway
212
Vitamin K is produced by bacteria in _____. It helps with ____. And is gained from eating ____ & _____
large intestine/ clotting/ veggies & meat
213
Anticoagulants are aka as _____
Blood thinners
214
The heart is apart of the ___ system
Cardiovascular
215
Blood is carried away from the heart by ___ and returns via ____
Arteries/ Veins
216
___ are microscopic vessels that interconnect the smallest arteries to the smaller veins
Capillaries
217
The _____ is a closed circuit system where blood is contained within vessels at all times during circulation
Heart
218
The heart beats ____ times a day and pumps ___ gallons of blood each day.
100,000 times / 2000 gallons
219
List the 4 muscular chambers of the heart
1. Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it to the Right Ventricle
2. Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
3. Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from lungs and sent to tp the Left Ventricle
Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body and brain
220
Which sides of the heart carry deoxygenated vs oxygenated blood?
Right: deoxygenated
Left: oxygenated
221
What is the most important part of the heart, why?
The left ventricle, bc it pumps oxygenated blood to the brain and body
222
*The heart is protected by a tough protective layer called the
Pericardium
223
The pericardium is made up of two layers the ____ and _____. What do they each line?
Serous membrane: lines outside of heart
Parietal pericardium: lines inner surface
224
Between the two layers of the pericardium is the ____ cavity which contains ___ fluid.
Pericardial cavity/ pericardial fluid
225
The all of the heart is made up of which 3 layers?
1. Epicardium - outer most layer
2. Myocardium- middle layer
3. Endocardium- inner surface
226
The ___ layer of the heart contains ____ muscle which helps with contractions or "beating"
Myocardium ( middle layer) / cardiac muscle
227
The endocardium layer of the heart lines ____ & ____
Chambers and valves
228
The ____ of the heart receives blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, anterior cardiac veins and coronary sinus.
Right Atrium
229
What is the job of the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and coronary sinus? Which one is a vein?
Superior vena cava: Drains blood from head, neck and upper limbs
Inferior vena cava: Drains blood from rest of body
Coronary sinus: Vein that receives blood from cardia veins
230
Where does the right ventricle of the heart receive blood from?
Tricuspid valvue
231
What are the 4 blood types? What antigens must each of them have?
Type A: Has surface antigen A
Type B: Has surface antigen B
Type AB: Has both A & B surface antigens
Type O: Has no antigens
232
The presence of ___ determines if a blood type is + or _
Rh
233
What sulcus separates atria from ventricles?
Coronary sulcus
234
What valve separates right atria from right ventricle and is the thinner valve?
Tricuspid valve
235
What structure separates right and left ventricle?
Interventicular septum
236
What is the name of the outer layer of the heart?
Epicardium
237
What vessel is seen only on the posterior side of the heart?
Inferior vena cava
238
What is the most obvious difference between the right and left ventricle?
The right is thin where the left is thick
239
Valvular disease is when the ____ of the heart become defective. This can lead to inadequate circulatory flow
Valvular Disease
240
Carditis is...
Inflammation of the heart
241
_____ is the inflammation of the endocardium & may lead to vascular heart disease
Endocarditis
242
___ & ____ can cause endocarditis
Gum infections and tooth decay
243
People who have ___ have to take antibiotics before dental appointment
Endocarditis
244
____ is an inflammatory autoimmune response to a streptococcal bacterial infection often seen in children
Rheumatic fever
245
The ___ _____ supplies the myocardium with O2 and nutrients
Coronary circulation
246
What is the name of the disease where the coronary blood supply is compromised due to fatty plaque in coronary artery
Coronary Artery Disease ( CAD)
247
Angina pectorals is another word for a _____
Heart attack
248
What are some symptoms of angina pectorals?
Chest pressure, sweating, arm, back, jaw, neck and chest pain
249
How does one protect themselves from experiencing angina pectorals?
Destress, quit smoking, avoid fatty foods, exercise
250
What is audtorhythmicity?
The hearts ability to contract and relax on its own
251
The heart can contract and relax on its own is due to the ___ which is basically the pacemaker of the heart
SA node
252
The SA node generates ___ ____ for the heart to beat
Action potential (electrical impulses)
253
The sinoatrial (SA) node is located in _____ wall of the ____ ______
Posterior wall of the right atrium
254
The Atrioventrical (AV) node is located in the ____ of the ____ _____
Floor of the right atrium
255
_____ cells interconnect both the SA and AV nodes
Conducting cells
256
The natural pacemaker of the heart is the ____
Sinoatrial (SA) node
257
If the SA node is damaged, the ____ is able to take over, but at a slower rate
AV node
258
Heartbeats are recorded by _____
Electrocardiograms (EKGs)
259
The peaks on a EKG scan measure the _____, where as the intervals measure the _____
Contracts / Action potential (electrical impulses)
260
What is the pattern sequence of an EKG scan?
P wave, QRS complex, T wave
261
What does each part of an EKG scan signify?
P wave: measures contraction of atria
QRS complex: Signifies contraction of ventricle
T wave: indicates ventricle repolarization
262
When seeing a larger, than normal, QRS complex on an EKG scan you can assume this indicates what?
Ab enlarged heart
263
When seeing a smaller than normal QRS complex on an EKG scan you can assume this indicates what?
Congestive heart failure
264
When seeing smaller than normal T waves on an EKG scan you can assume this indicates what?
Low levels of potassium and starvation
265
An EKG interval is
The time between the end of one wave to the end of the next
266
Cardiac Arrhythmias is another word for what?
irregular heartbeat
267
What do we rely on for muscle contractions?
Potassium (K)
268
What are the three steps to action potential in cardiac cells? What happens in each/
1. Rapid depolarization: sodium channels open up allowing influx of Na+ in fibers
2. Plateau: At 30mv, Na+ channels close. And Ca2+ (calcium channels) open and stay open a little. Allows for stronger
3. Repolarization: Slow calcium channels close. K channels open allowing K=+ to float out of cell, restoring cell to resting potential
269
Where does the hearts cardiac muscle gain energy?
Fats and glucose
270
The period between the start of one heart beat and beginning go the next is called the ___ cycle
Cardiac cycle
271
Each heartbeat followed by a brief resting phase is called the ___ ___
Cardiac cycle
272
The cardiac cycle can be divided into which 2 phases. Describe them
1. Systol: Contraction - Chambers empty blood
| 2. Diastole: Relaxation - Chambers fill with blood
273
What is the difference between Tachycardia & Brandycardia
Tachycardia: Fast heart beat
Brandycardia: Slow heart beat
274
What are the two main sounds of the heart, what are we hearting when they occur?
S1: "lubb"- closing of the AV valve
S2: "dubb: - closing of the semilunar valve
275
If you listen to a athletes chest and their heart sounds is: "lubb, dubbings, bubb". Is there a problem?
No, this is common
276
____ ___are rushing, gurgling sounds due to swirling of blood in the AV or semilunar valves
Heart Murmurs
277
___ the name of the hearts action of pumping blood
Cardiodynamics
278
Explain what are:
End-diastolic Volume (EDV)
End-systolic Volume (ESV)
Stroke Volume (SV):
End-diastolic Volume (EDV): Amount of blood left in ventricle at end of ventricular diastole (
End-systolic Volume (ESV): Amount of blood left in ventricle at end of ventricular systole
Stroke Volume (SV): Amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat
279
What are some ways to improve ejection fraction?
Lessen salt intake & workout
280
Cardiac output is....
The amount of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in 1 min
281
Normal heart rate is between ___ -___
60 -100bpm
282
Abnormal conditions that affect cardiac output include what?
Temperature, caffeine, nicotine, abnormal ion concentration
283
What is Preload vs. Afterload?
Preload: Ventricle muscle cells stretching during diastole (good)
Afterload: Increase of pressure while left ventricle pushes blood out (bad)
284
List 3 heart meds, how they help and what they help with
1) Digitalis
- Elevates calcium ions in the heart = improves contractions
- Treats: congestive heart failure
2) Beta Blockers
- Decreases heart rate and contraction
- Treats hypertension (anxiety)
3) Calcium Channel Blockers
- Reduces Ca2+ into the heart = reduces contractions
- Treats: hypertension
