Exam 1

Question 1

what is allometric scaling?

Answer 1

body size influences physiological patterns, most commonly rates of interactions
as size increases, metabolic rate decreases
as size decreases, metabolic rate increases
volume:surface area
1cm– 1cc: 6cm^2
10cm– 1000cc:600cm^2

Question 2

what is phenotypic plasticity?

Answer 2

single genotype generates more than one phenotype depending on environmental conditions
example: armored daphnia v. not
can be reversible or irreversible
reversible: acclimation (lab conditions, steroids), acclimatization (natural, breathing at sea level v. bozeman)
irreversible: polyphenism–developmental plasticity

Question 3

what is fitness?

Answer 3

is not about observable traits..is about how many of an individual’s alleles make it into future generations
who REPRODUCES? “sneaky fuckers” aka the scottish deer
survival + reproduction

Question 4

acclimation v. acclimatization

Answer 4

acclimation–under lab conditions,,steroids
acclimatization–natural, , breathing at sea level v. Everest

Question 5

what are model organisms?

Answer 5

“for such a large number of problems there will be some animal of choice or a few such animals on which it can be most conveniently studied”

Question 6

what is homeostasis?

Answer 6

strategies for coping with changing environmental conditions
conformers: allow internal conditions to change to match external conditions
regulators: maintain relatively constant internal conditions regardless of external conditions
osmoregulators: match salt concentrations of body to salt concentrations of sea water (sharks)

Question 7

feedback loops and reflex control pathways

Answer 7

negative feedback loops: shut off at desired conditions (air conditioning)
positive feedback loop: rare, vomiting and other emergency defense mechanisms

Question 8

what are the unifying themes of animal physiology?

Answer 8

communication between cells, tissues and systems, homeostasis, movement, senses, organ systems

Question 9

disease

Answer 9

an interaction in which a disease organism lives on or within a host plant or animal to the benefit of the disease agent and to the detriment of the host

Question 10

microparasite

Answer 10

single cell organisms
bacteria (prokaryotes)
protozoa (eukaryotes)–prions, viruses

Question 11

viral infection

Answer 11

virus has harpoon that matches a docking protein of the host cell, viral RNA is injected into the cell and the host makes more virus

Question 12

macroparasites

Answer 12

large, sometimes visible to naked eye
multicellular: worms, ticks, leeches, mosquitos

Question 13

parasite categories

Answer 13

endoparasites: internal
ectoparasites: external

Question 14

virulence

Answer 14

violence of the interaction between host and the parasite
can be variable within same species host and parasite

Question 15

sub-lethal effects

Answer 15

decrease reproduction,, decrease fitness
increased vulnerability to predation

Question 16

epidemic

Answer 16

the number of infections in human population increases

Question 17

epizootic

Answer 17

the number of infected animals increases
currently: CWD chronic wasting disease

Question 18

zoonosis, zoonotic disease

Answer 18

disease jumps from nonhuman animals to humans
examples: measles, seasonal flu

Question 19

horizontal transmission

Answer 19

disease transfer from individual to individual
direct transmission

Question 20

vertical transmission

Answer 20

disease transfer from parent to offspring,, gestation or birth

Question 21

indirect transmission

Answer 21

disease transfer through intermediary(vector), usually insects
examples: lyme disease, rocky mountain spotted fever

Question 22

definitive host

Answer 22

where the parasite has sex,, sexual reproduction of pathogen

Question 23

SIR model

Answer 23

b births–> N susceptible –beta*cN–>infected–gamma–> recovered–v (Nu)–>susceptible
beta: how contagious is the disease
c: contact rate
N: number of susceptibles in starting population
alpha: death due to disease
v (Nu): lost immunity, back to susceptible pool
gamma: recovery, how long you’re sick, how much you transmit
d: background death
b: births

Question 24

Ro

Answer 24

average number of infected people due to one infected person
Ro<1, disease is decreasing
Ro=1, not epidemic and not increasing
Ro>1, epidemic, number of infections is increasing

Question 25

Ro equation

Answer 25

Ro=betacN/gamma the infection rate(beta) x number of contacts (cN) divided by the recovery rate (gamma) vaccine= decreasing susceptibility, decrease N Ro should decrease as epidemic progresses because N decreases due to immunity

Question 26

sero positive

Answer 26

have antibodies for antigen/pathogen or have pathogen on board

Question 27

sero prevalent

Answer 27

proportion of individuals in a population that are sero positive

Question 28

reservoir

Answer 28

population of hosts that carry pathogen

Question 29

what is an evolutionary arms race?

Answer 29

an increase in pathogen virulence in response to increased host defenses

Question 30

innate immunity

Answer 30

a series of defenses that act immediately upon infection and are the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered before, outside of the cell, interstitial space all animals have it rapid, recognizes broad range of pathogens, no memory

Question 31

adaptive immunity/acquired immunity

Answer 31

a system that learns to recognize specific pathogens and remembers them for future battles once cell is penetrated slower, has memory for specific pathogens differs from individual to individual, depending on what pathogens they have been previously exposed to can be achieved by vaccination

Question 32

invertebrate immune response

Answer 32

rely solely on innate immunity: exoskeleton, additional physical barriers, low pH, the enzyme lysozyme, immune cells capable of phagocytosis (cellular ingestion and digestion of foreign substances)

Question 33

innate response players

Answer 33

external barriers: skin, secretions, mucous membranes, hairs, cilia internal barriers: phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, defensive proteins, inflammatory response, interferon

Question 34

tissue damage triggers innate response

Answer 34

neutrophils (WBC) diffuse out of widened, leaky capillary into interstitial fluid mast cells secrete histamines and cytokines (signaling molecules) macrophages release cytokines additional fluid and cells accumulate around injury causing swelling both macrophages and neutrophils attack and eat invaders/bacteria

Question 35

interferons

Answer 35

limit the use of them because they affect viral and normal DNA viral nucleic acid-->interferon genes turn on-->interferon DNA transcribes to mRNA-->inerferon proteins are made--> host cell 1 dies making interferon host cell 2 is stimulated by interferon proteins and turns on genes for antiviral proteins--> antiviral proteins block viral reproduction

Question 36

natural killer t cells

Answer 36

recognize cancer cells or cells infected by virus through cell surface signaling mechanisms bind to receptors on distressed cells, releases perforins, and enzymes that enter the cell cause apoptosis, kills both natural killer cell and infected cell

Question 37

antigens

Answer 37

any molecule that elicits an adaptive immune response non self molecules that protrude from pathogens or other particles such as viruses, bacteria, mold spores, pollen, house dust, or the cell surfaces of transplanted organs

Question 38

antibodies

Answer 38

attached to antigens proteins found in blood plasma that attach to one particular kind of antigen and help counter its effects made by cells formed from lymphocytes

Question 39

lymphocytes

Answer 39

white blood cells that spend most of their time in the blood and tissues and organs of the lymphatic system responsible for adaptive immunity provide specialized defenses that act on pathogens located in either body fluids or inside cells made from bone marrow B cells (mature in bone marrow) and T cells (mature in thymus)

Question 40

active immunity

Answer 40

person's own immune system actively produces antibodies

Question 41

passive immunity

Answer 41

receiving pre-made antibodies, boosters

Question 42

lymphatic system

Answer 42

as lymph circulates through lymphatic organs it collects microbes, parts of microbes, and microbial toxins transports them to lymphatic organs where macrophages engulf the invaders and lymphocytes my mount an adaptive immune response returns fluid(lymph) that leaks out in capillary beds drains into veins in the neck collects excess filtered fluid and returns it to circulatory system--> lymph nodes filter lymph to remove pathogens--> lymphatic veins and ducts contain valves to prevent backflow edema--accumulation of interstitial fluid

Question 43

humoral response

Answer 43

action against free floating antigens players: B cells and T cells

Question 44

cell mediated response

Answer 44

action against infected cells player: T cells

Question 45

antigen receptors

Answer 45

specific protein that differentiates B cells and T cells capable of binding to one specific type of antigen, which are then incorporated into the plasma membrane all antigen receptors in the surface of a single lymphocytes are identical and recognize a particular antigen

Question 46

B cells

Answer 46

participate in the humoral response defend primarily against bacteria and viruses present in bodily fluids secrete antibodies into the blood and lymph clonal selection: fight current infections and remember the pathogen for future infection

Question 47

clonal selection

Answer 47

antigens bind to a B cell that has corresponding antigen receptors B cells with different antigen receptors are unaffected by this antigen -->the selected B cell gives rise to a clone of B cells with antigen receptors for the same antigen--> some B cells become effector cells(plasma cells), which secrete antibodies into the blood and lymph some B cells become memory cells

Question 48

memory cells

Answer 48

help activate the immune system upon subsequent infection lasts for decades

Question 49

antibodies do not kill pathogens

Answer 49

an antibody has two functions in the humoral response 1. to recognize and bind to a certain antigen 2. to assist in eliminating that antigen inactivates antigens by: neutralization (blocks viral binding sites, coats bacteria) agglutination of microbes (clumps viruses and cells together) precipitation of dissolved antigens (clumps of soluble antigens come out of solution) ^^^enhances phagocytosis activation of the complement system (activated complement protein form membrane complexes) ^ leads to cell lysis

Question 50

t cells

Answer 50

participate in the cell-mediate immune response and humoral response defend against infections inside body cells attack cells infected with bacteria or viruses promote phagocytosis by other white blood cells and by stimulating B cells to produce antibodies

Question 51

activated helper T cells secrete signaling molecules that have three major effects

Answer 51

1. they stimulate clonal selection of the helper T cell, producing memory cells and more effector helper T cells 2. they help activate B cells, this stimulating the humoral response 3. they stimulate the activity of cytotoxic t cells of the cell-mediated response

Question 52

helper t cell pathway

Answer 52

antigen presenting cell has surface self-nonself complex--> activated helper t cell--> helper t cell releases chemical messengers that stimulate more helper t cell production, activate b cells, and activate cytotoxic t cells

Question 53

cytotoxic t cells (killer t cells)

Answer 53

only t cells that kill infected cells once activated, clonal selection ensues and effector cytotoxic t cells identify infected cells through a self-nonself complex play a role in protecting the body against the spread of some cancers -HPV -hepatitis B -epstein-barr (causes lymphomas)

Question 54

cytotoxic t cell pathway

Answer 54

infected cell presents self-nonself complex--> cytotoxic t cell containing perforin binds to an infected cell ("paul revere")--> perforin makes holes in the infected cell's membrane and enzymes that promote apoptosis--> perforin moves down concentration gradient into infected host cell--> infected cell is destroyed

Question 55

primary immune response

Answer 55

occurs upon first exposure to an antigen is slower than the secondary immune response

Question 56

secondary immune response

Answer 56

occurs upon the second exposure to an antigen is faster and stronger than the primary response helper T cells, memory cells, and antibodies are already on board