Exam 1 Flashcards
(220 cards)
1
Q
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
A
Anatomy is about the structures of the body while physiology is the study of the functions of the body
2
Q
Cytology vs. histology
A
The study of cells vs the study of tissues
3
Q
Pathology
A
The study of sick cells
4
Q
Pathophysiology
A
The study of sick systems
5
Q
Proximal
A
Towards the point of attachment of a limb to a trunk
6
Q
Distal
A
Away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk
7
Q
Medial
A
Towards the midline
8
Q
Lateral
A
Away from the midline
9
Q
Cranial
A
Towards the head
10
Q
Posterior/dorsal
A
The back
11
Q
Anterior/ventral
A
The front surface
12
Q
Level of organization of human body
A
Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems
13
Q
How many organ systems do humans have?
A
Eleven
14
Q
Major organs of integumentary System
A
Skin, hair, sweat glands, nails
15
Q
Functions of the integumentary System
A
1) protects against environmental temperatures 2) helps regulate body temperature 3) provides sensory information
16
Q
Organs of the skeletal system
A
Bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, bone marrow
17
Q
Functions of the skeletal system
A
1) provides support and protection for other tissues 2) stores calcium and other minerals 3) forms blood cells
18
Q
Organs of the muscular system
A
Skeletal muscles and associated tendons
19
Q
Functions of the muscular system
A
1) provides movement 2) provides protection and support for other tissues 3) generates heat that maintains body temperature
20
Q
Major organs of the nervous system
A
Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs
21
Q
Functions of the nervous system
A
1) directs immediate responses to stimuli 2) coordinates or moderates other organ systems 3) provides and interprets sensory information
22
Q
Major organs of the endocrine System
A
Pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, panereas and gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems
23
Q
Functions of the endocrine system
A
1) directs long-term changes in other organ systems 2) adjusts metabolic activity and E use 3) controls many structural and functional changes during development
24
Q
Major organs of the cardiovascular system
A
Heart, blood, blood vessels
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Functions of the cardiovascular system
1) distributes blood cells, water, nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide 2) distributes heat to control body temperature
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Anatomical position
Hands at side, Palms forward
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Supine
Lying down face up
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Prone
Lying down, face down
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Functions of body cavities
1) protects organs from shocks and impacts 2) permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs
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Viscera
Internal organs
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Serous membrane
Lines body cavities and covers organs
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Parietal serosa
Lines cavity
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Visceral serosa
Covers organs
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Pleural cavities
Right and left lungs
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Homeostasis
Body's way of regulating functions of body
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Autoregulation
Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to an environmental change
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Extrinsic regulation
Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine System
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Homeostatic regulatory mechanism component
Receptor, control center, and effector
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Homeostatic regulatory mechanism
Limits fluctuations of internal conditions to keep them close to a set point, or desired value
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Receptor
Receives the stimulus
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Control Center
Processes the signal and sends instructions
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Effector
Carries out instructions
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Negative feedback
The response of the effector negates the stimulus. Body is brought back to homeostasis
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Positive feedback
Initial stimulus provides a response that amplifies the original change in conditions. body is moved away from homeostasis
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Positive feedback loop
Completes a dangerous process quickly to reestablish homeostasis
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Dynamic equilibrium
Continual adaptation
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Hydrogen bonds
Weak and keep the DNA strands together
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Macromolecules
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
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Glucose
Most important carbohydrate • stored version of glucose is glycogen
50
Lipids
Hydrophobic molecules
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Saturated fatty acids
No double-bonds in hydrocarbon tails
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Unsaturated fatty acids
One or more double bonds in tail
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Glycosides
Fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule
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Functions of glycerides
1) energy source 2) insulation 3) protection
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Structure of phospholipids and glycolipids
Hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
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Structural lipids
Components of plasma membranes
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Number of amino acids to form polymers
20
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Primary structure
The sequence of amino acids along a polypeptide
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Secondary structure
Hydrogen bonds form spirals or pleat
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Tertiary structure
Coiling and folding produce 3d shape
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Quaternary structure
Final protein complex produced by interacting polypeptide chains
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Globular proteins
Soluble spheres w/ active functions. shape is based on tertiary structure
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Fibrous proteins
Structural sheets or strands. Shape is based on secondary or quaternary structures
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7 major protein functions
Support,movement, transport, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and control, defense
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Enzymes
Lower the activation E of a chemical reaction • lock and key model
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DNA
1) determines inherited characteristics 2) directs protein synthesis 3) controls enzyme production 4) controls metabolism
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RNA
Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis
68
Phosphorylation
Process of adding a phosphate group to another molecule, produces a high E bond
69
What is the plasma membrane composed of?
Lipids/cholesterol, proteins, carbs
70
What is the cytoplasm composed of?
Cytosol, organelles
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Osmosis
Movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
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Tonicity
Capability of a solution to modify the volume of cells by altering the water content
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Receptor mediated endocytosis
Specific uptake of macromolecules
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Functions of the plasma membrane
1) physical barrier 2) regulation of exchange W environment 3) sensitivity to the environment 4) structural support
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Anchoring proteins
Attach to inside or outside structures
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Recognition proteins
Label cells as normal or abnormal [ cancerous ]
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Enzymes
Catalyze reactions
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Receptor proteins
Binds and responds to ligands
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Carrier proteins
Transport specific solutes through membrane
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Channels
Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane
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Cytosol
Intracellularfluid
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Contents of cytosol
Dissolved materials, high potassium low sodium, high protein, high carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat.
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Free ribosomes
Manufacture proteins for cell
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Fixed ribosomes
Manufacture proteins for secretion
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Smooth Er
Synthesize lipids and carbs
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Rough Er
Active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis
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Golgi apparatus
Modifies and packages secretions
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Lysosomal functions
1) break down large molecules 2) attack bacteria 3) recycle damaged organelles 4) eject waste by exocytosis
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PeroxiSome's
Enzyme containing vesicles
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Phagocytosis
Engulf large objects in phagosomes
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Pinocytosis
Endosomes"drink"extracellular fluid
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Exocytosis
Granules or droplets are released from the cells
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Chromatin
Loosely coiled DNA [ cells not dividing ]
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Chromosomes
Tightly coiled DNA [ cells dividing ]
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Triplet code
3 bases =1 amino acid
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Transcription
Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA
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RNA polymerase
Produces mRNA
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Translation
RNA to protein
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Steps of gene transcription
1) gene activation 2) DNA to mRNA 3) RNA processing
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Gametes
Undergo meiosis
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Somatic cells
Mitosis
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Mitotic rate
Rate of cell division, slow mitotic rate means longer cell life, cell division requires ATP
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Which cells rarely divide?
Muscle, neurons
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Telomeres
As cell divides,telomeres shorten → linked to aging
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Benign
Contained
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Malignant
Spreads into surrounding tissue
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Primary tumor
Tumor at origin
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Secondary tumor
Tumor found outside of origin
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Four types of tissue
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
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Functions of epithelial tissues
1) covers exposed surfaces 2) lines internal passageways and chambers 3) produces glandular secretions
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Functions of the connective tissues
1) fills internal spaces 2) provides structure support 3) stores E
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Functions of the muscle tissue
Contracts to produce movement
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Functions of nervous tissue
1) propagates E impulses 2) carries information
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Characteristics of epithelia
1) attached to basement membrane 2) polarity 3) cellularity 4)avascularity 5) regeneration
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Specializations of epithelial cells
1) Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) 2) move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) 3) produce secretions (protection and messaging)
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Integrity of epithelia
1) intercellular connections 2) attachment to the basement membrane 3) epithelial maintenance and repair
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Classifications of epithelia (shape)
Squamous,cuboidal, columnar
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Classification of epithelia (layers)
Simple or stratified
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Transitional epithelia
Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching without damage, found in urinary bladder
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Components of connective tissue
1) specialized cells 2) extracellular protein fibers 3) fluid called "ground substance"
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Matrix
Extracellular components of connective tissue, majority of tissue volume, determines specialized function
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Fasciae
Connective tissue layers and wrappings that support and surround organs (cellophane wrap)
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More functions of connective tissue
Establishing a structural framework for the body, transporting fluids and dissolved materials, protecting delicate organs, supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue, storing E reserves, and defending the body from invading microorganisms
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Categories of connective tissue
1) connective tissue proper (connect and protect) 2) fluid connective tissue (transport) 3) supporting connective tissue (structural strength)
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Collagen fibers
Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
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Characteristics of collagen fibers
Long, straight, unbranched, strong, flexible • resist force in one direction
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Where are collagen fibers found?
Tendons and ligaments
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Reticular fibers
Form a network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
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Characteristics of reticular fibers
Strong and flexible, resist forces in many directions, stabilize functional cells
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Example of reticular fiber function
Form sheaths around organs
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Elastic fibers
Contain elastin, branched and wavy, return to original length after stretching
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Example of elastic fibers
Elastic ligaments of vertebrae
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Fluid connective tissue
Blood and lymph
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Lymph
Forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels• monitored by immune system
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Supporting connective tissue
Cartilage and bone
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Functions of cartilage
Shock absorption and protection through firm get called matrix
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Structure of cartilage
Avascular
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Types of cartilage
1) hyaline 2) elastic 3) fibrocartilage
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Hyaline cartilage
Most common type of cartilage • tough and somewhat flexible • reduces friction between bones • found in synovial joints, rib tips sternum, and trachea
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Elastic cartilage
Supportive but bends easily, found in ear and epiglottis•
141
Fibrocartilage
Durable and tough, limits movement, prevents bone-to- bone contact • found around joints, between pubic bones, and between spinal vertebrae
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Properties of bone
Weight support, calcified, resists shattering due to flexible collagen fibers, osteocytes (bone cells) lie in lacunae, periosteum covers bone
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Periosteum
Fibrous outer layer and cellular inner layer
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Tissue membrane
Physical barrier that lines/covers body surfaces • epithelium supported by connective tissue
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Mucous membranes
Line passageways that have external connections
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Serous membranes
Line cavities that do not open to the outside
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Serous fluid
Reduces friction
148
Types of serous membranes
1) peritoneum → lines peritoneal cavity and covers abdominal organs 2) pleura → lines pleural cavities and covers lungs 3) pericardium → lines pericardial cavity and covers heart
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Types of muscle tissue
1) skeletal muscle 2) cardiac muscle 3) smooth muscle
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Skeletal muscle characteristics
Long, cylindrical, and striated
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Cardiac muscle tissue characteristics
Short, branched, striated w/ a single nucleus, involuntary do not run parallel to each other
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Intercalated discs
Glue that hold muscle cells together while they contract
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Function of nervous tissue
1) specialized for conducting electrical impulses 2)concentrated in the brain and spinal cord
154
Types of cells in nervous tissue
Neurons and neuroglia
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Glial cell functions
Support, insulation, protection for neurons and tether them to blood vessels
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Tissue response to injury
Inflammation and regeneration
157
Consequences of inflammation
Increased blood flow, increased vessel permeability, and pain
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Inflammation cont.
Increased local temperature,increased oxgyen and nutrients, increased phagocytosis, and removal of toxins and waste
159
Catabolism
Breaking down fats and carbs
160
Anabolism
Synthesizing fats, making new cells
161
Where is glycogen stored?
Skeletal muscle and liver
162
Triglycerides
Most abundant storage lipid, consists primarily of fatty acids
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Glycolysis
Occurs in cytosol•does not require oxygen • produces 2 ATP molecules
164
Gluconeogenesis
Synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules
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Integumentory System
Skin and accessory structures
166
Components of cutaneous membrane
Outer epidermis, inner dermis
167
Accessory structures
Hair and hair follicles, exocrine glands, nails
168
Subcutaneous layer
Hypodermis
169
Significance of dermal ridges
Layer from which fingerprint is derived
170
What are the body most abundant epithelial cells?
Keratinocytes
171
Two types of skin
Thin skin, thick skin
172
Thin skin
Covers most of the body, has four layers of keratinocytes
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Thick skin
Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet • has five layers of keratinocytes
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Melanocytes
Contain the pigment melanin, protect from uv radiations and darken skin
175
Dermal strength and elasticity
Collagen fibers → very strong and resists stretching, easily bent or twisted, limit flexibility to prevent tissue damage -
Elastic fibers → permit stretching and then recoil to original length, provide flexibility
Fibers and water → provide flexibility and resilience (skin turgor)
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Tension lines
Produced by parallel bundles of collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis
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Subcutaneous layer
Lies deep to dermis, stabilizes position of the skin, primarily adipose tissue
178
What 2 pigments influence skin color?
Melanin and carotene
179
Melanin
Produced by melanocytes
Stored in intracellular vesicles
Protects skin from uv radiation
180
Carotene
Can be converted to vitamin A which is req for the maintenance of epithelia, synthesis of photoreceptor pigments in eye
181
Hair
Accessory structures of the integument
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Functions of the hair
1. Protect and insulate
2. Guard openings from particles and insects
3. serve as sensory receptors
183
Types of sweat glands
1. apocrine sweat glands
2. Eccrine sweat glands
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Other integumentary glands
Mammary glands
Ceruminous glands
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Nails
Protect tips of fingers and toes
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Functions of the skeletal system
1.support
2. Storage of minerals and lipids
3. blood cell production
4. Protection
5. Leverage
187
How are bones classified?
Shape+ structure
188
Structure of a long bone
Diaphysis(shaft)
Epiphysis (wide part at each end)
Metaphysis
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Diaphysis
1, wall of compact bone
2.central space called medullary cavity
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Epiphysis
Mostly spongy bone (trabecular bone)
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Characteristics of bone
1. dense matrix
2. Osteocytes
3. Canaliculi
4. Periosteum
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Osteocytes
Bone cells within lacunae organized around blood cells
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Canaliculi
Narrow passageways that allow for exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gases
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Periosteum
Covers outer surfaces of bones
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Bone matrix composition
2/3 calcium phosphate → forms crystals of hydroxyapatite
1/3 collagen fibers
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Four types of bone cells
1. osteogenic cells
2. osteoblasts
3. osteocytes
4. osteoclasts
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Osteogenic cells
Stem cells whose division produces osteoblasts
And assist in fracture repair
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Osteoblasts
• Produce new bone matrix during osteogenesis
• When osteoblasts are surrounded by bone matrix they become osteocytes
• Use calcium phosphate to constantly lay down new bone.
199
Osteocytes
• Live in lacunae between layers of matrix
• Have cytoplasmic ext through canaliculi
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Functions of osteocytes
1.maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
2. Help repair damage bone
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Functions of osteoclasts
1. Absorb and remove bone matrix
2. Secrete acids and protein digesting enzymes
a. Dissolve bone matrix and release stored minerals
b. This osteolysis is important in homeostasis
202
Osteon
Functional Unit of compact bone
203
Central canal
Component of compact bone that contains blood vessels
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Perforating canal
Perpendicular to surface bone
Carry blood vessels into deep bone and marrow
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Types of lamellae
Concentric, interstitial, circumferential
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Concentric lamellae
Surround central canal
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Interstitial lamellae
Fills space between osteons
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Circumferential lamellae
Outer and inner bone surfaces
209
Characteristics of spongy bone
Towards the center of the long bone
210
Red bone marrow
Fills spaces between trabeculae
211
Yellow bone marrow
Stores fat and regulates calcium levels
212
Endosteum
Cellular layer that lines medullary cavity active during bone growth, repair, remodeling
213
Bone development
Ossification and calcification
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Endochrondral ossification
How most bones form
215
Intramembraneous ossification
Produces dermal bones such as mandible and clavicle
216
Interstitial growth
Bone grows in length
217
Appositional growth
Bone grows in width
218
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
Affect storage, absorption, and excretion of calcium ions in the bones, digestive tract, and kidneys
219
PTH
Stimulate osteoclast activity increase intestinal absorption, decrease calcium excretion by kidneys
220
Fractures
Cracks or breaks in bones due to physical stress
