exam #1 Flashcards
(86 cards)
1
Q
anatomy v.s physiology
A
anatomy: study of structure
physiology: study of function
2
Q
____ follows ____ / ____ determines ____
A
form follows function / structure determines function
3
Q
living things have what?
A
all characteristics of life
4
Q
non-living things have what?
A
missing at least one characteristic of life
5
Q
list the 7 characteristics of life
A
-organization
-metabolism
-responsiveness
-homeostasis
-development
-reproduction
-evolution
6
Q
organization
A
-more complex than non-living structures
-functional unit (smallest component with all characteristics of life)-the cell
7
Q
responsiveness
A
-ability to sense changes (stimuli) and react to them
7
Q
metabolism
A
-all cellular processes and chemical reactions in the body
-life brings in energy and uses it for cellular function
8
Q
development
A
-changes in an organism over time
-growth: increase in size or number of cells
-differentiation: change of cells from general to specialized
9
Q
reproduction
A
-produces new cells or new organisms
10
Q
homeostasis
A
-ability to maintain internal stability
-maintenance of relatively stable internal environment
11
Q
evolution
A
-changes over generations
-caused by genetic mutations and differentiation survival/reproduction
12
Q
human hierarchy of complexity from least to most complex
A
least
-atoms
-molecules/chemicals
-macromolecules
-organelles
-cells
-tissues
-organs
-organ systems
-organism
most
13
Q
atoms
A
-smallest unit of matter
14
Q
molecules
A
-at least 2 atoms bonded together
-aka compound
15
Q
macromolecules
A
-large molecule/compound
-compound containing carbon and any functional group
-aka organic compounds, biomolecules
-several specific classes
16
Q
organelles
A
-components of a cell with specific structure and function
17
Q
cells
A
-functional unit of life
-most basic structure considered alive
-cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane
18
Q
tissues
A
-group of similar cells, their products, and the materials surrounding those cells
-ex. muscle tissue, nervous tissue
19
Q
organs
A
-two or more tissues functioning together
-ex. biceps brachii, stomach
20
Q
organ systems
A
-multiple organs functioning together
-ex. digestive system, nervous system
21
Q
organism
A
-multiple organ systems functioning together
22
Q
energy powers _____
-energy is gained from _____
-2 types of ^
A
energy powers metabolism
-energy is gained from breaking molecular bonds
-nutrient bonds broken to make ATP
-ATP bonds broken to power other reactions
23
Q
information flow
-information travels in a consistent way through our ___ system
-stimulus activates ___ signal
-___ signal sent to ___ center
-___ center sends ___ signal
-____ signal causes an effect
A
-information travels in a consistent way through our nervous system
-stimulus activates input/afferent signal
-afferent signal sent to control center
-control center sends output/efferent signal
-efferent signal causes an effect
24
gradient
-a system in which there is a different in the amount of anything between two points
-ex. oxygen levels of blood v.s lungs
25
gradient flow
-components of gradients diffuse
-diffusion: spontaneous movement from areas of high concentration to low concentration
-gradient components "flow down" their gradient
-movement "up" a gradient requires energy
26
concentration gradient
-there's more of an object at point A than point B
-aka molecular gradient
27
temperature gradient
-difference in temperature between points A&B
-aka thermal gradient
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pressure gradient
difference in pressure between points A&B
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electrical gradient
difference in charge
30
negative feedback systems
oppose change, maintain homeostasis
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positive feedback systems
amplify change, oppose homeostasis
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feedback system component: variable
physiologic component being maintained
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feedback system component: set point
ideal normal value of a particular variable
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feedback system component: normal range
values of a particular variable as it fluctuates around the set point
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feedback system component: stimulus
deviates the variable away from set point
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feedback system component: receptor
monitors value of variable
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feedback system component: control center
establishes the set point
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feedback system component: effector
anatomical structure that can change the value of the variable
39
negative feedback system steps
-____ produces change in variable
-___ detects change
-___ sends ___ signal to ___
-___ determines course of action, sends ___ signal to ____
-____ causes reduction in effect of the __, returns variable to the __, shuts down negative feedback system
-stimulus produces change in variable
-receptor detects change
-receptor sends afferent signal to control center
-control center determines course of action, sends efferent signal to effector
-effector causes reduction in effect of the stimulus, returns variable to the set point, shuts down negative feedback system
40
negative feedback system examples
-maintaining body temperature (thermoregulation)
-blood pressure regulation
-blood sugar regulation
41
positive feedback system
-__ cycle
-when ___ moves variable from ___, causes a greater deviation from the ___
-___-amplifying
-produces __ change, which is usually bad
-"good" examples
-vicious
-when stimulus moves variable from set point, causes a greater deviation from the set point
-self-amplifying
-produces rapid change, which is usually bad
-"good" examples: uterus contractions during child birth, blood clotting
42
carbon is the foundation of organic compounds because
-it is ___
-has __ valence electrons-can gain or lose _
-forms ___ bonds-shares ____
-binds readily to other ___ atoms, forming large molecules
-it is common
-has 4 valence electrons-can gain or lose 4
-forms covalent bonds-shares electrons
-binds readily to other carbon atoms, forming large molecules
43
functional groups
-small groups of atoms that gives properties to the macromolecule
-ex: carboxyl groups make compounds weak acids and amino groups make compounds weak bases
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four classes of organic compounds
-carbohydrates
-lipids
-nucleic acids
-proteins
45
macromolecules are made of building blocks called what?
monomers
46
monomer
-smaller group of atoms
-can exist independently
-can bind to other monomers to form larger macromolecules
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dimer
two monomers bound together
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oligomer
-small group of monomers bound together
-typically 3-10 monomers
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polymer
large group of monomers bound together
50
dehydration synthesis
-chemical reaction that binds monomers together
-always releases 2H and 1O atom from reacting monomers (the reacting monomers lose a water molecule)
-many dehydration synthesis reactions form a polymer
51
hydrolysis
-breaks apart monomers (opposite of dehydration synthesis)
-water molecule reacts with two bound monomers, breaking bond between them
52
carbohydrates
-aka ___
-structure
-sizes
-function
-aka sugars
-structure: carbon backbones with 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen, monomers have 3-7 carbons
-sizes: monomer=monosaccharide, dimer=disaccharide, oligomer=oligosaccharide, polymer=polysaccharide
-function: near-immediate energy use (glucose and other monosaccharides) and short-term energy storage (glycogen-polysaccharide)
53
lipids
-aka __
-structure
-many types and functions
-some lipid classes (3)
-aka fats
-macromolecules with many carbons and hydrogens (hydrocarbons) and few oxygen atoms
-many types and functions
-fatty acids: long term energy storage. monomers (sort of)
-phospholipids: form cell membranes
-steroids: hormones (signaling molecules)
54
nucleic acids
-____ composed of ___
-include __ and __
-functions
-macromolecules composed of nucleotides
-include DNA and RNA
-functions: store genetic information (DNA, RNA), immediate energy use
55
nucleotide
-____ of nucleic acids
-composition (3 parts)
-monomer of nucleic acids
-nitrogenous base: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine, or Uracil
-five carbon sugar: ribose or deoxyribose
-phosphate group/groups: more phosphates = more energy
56
ATP
-what does ATP stand for?
-it is a ___
-____ energy in cells
-____ phosphate groups - ___ bond of __ releases great energy
-body uses ___ pounds of ATP per day
-adenosine triphosphate
-nucleotide (part of nucleic acids)
-immediate energy in cells
-3 phosphate groups- breaking bond of third releases great energy
-body uses 88 pounds of ATP per day
57
proteins
-macromolecules composed of ____
-functions (just some, there are many)
-macromolecule composed of amino acids
-cell structure, cell signaling, movement, protection, catalysis
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amino acids
-___ of proteins
-structure
-___ determines name and properties
-monomers of proteins
-structure: amine/amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (COOH), central carbon, functional group (R)
-functional group (R) determines name and properties
59
polypeptides
-___ of proteins
-_ and _ peptides are less common
-amino acids are bound by ___ bond
-___ bond formed by ___ reaction of COOH and and NH2 group of respective amino acids
-_ and _ form bond
-polymer of proteins - many amino acids
-Di- and oligo- peptides less common
-amino acids are bound by peptide bond
-peptide bond formed by dehydration synthesis reaction of COOH and NH2 group of respective amino acids
-C and N form bond
60
protein complexity
-____ fold into a complex 3D shape
-3D shape determined by its ____ structure: the __ of amino acids
-3D shape called the ___ structure
-polypeptides fold into a complex 3D shape
-3D shape determined by its primary structure: the sequence of amino acids
-3D shape called the tertiary structure
61
tertiary protein structure
-__ shape of entire protein
-this shape determines protein ___
-____ interactions drive folding into tertiary structure
-conformational change
-denaturation
-3D shape of entire protein
-this shape determines protein function
-R group interactions drive folding into tertiary structure
-conformational change: a change in the protein's tertiary structure
---can cause change in protein function
---some proteins only function correctly when they undergo conformational changes regularly
---can be caused by different molecules binding, unbinding
-denaturation: if a protein unfolds, losing its tertiary structure due to heat or acid exposure, it loses its function
62
quaternary protein structure
-combination of ___
-most proteins do/do not have a quaternary structure
-combination of 2+ polypeptide chains
-most proteins do not have a quaternary structure
63
enzymes
-class of ___
-___ chemical reactions - make reactions happen significantly ___
-how they work
-class of protein
-catalyze chemical reactions- make reactions happen significantly faster
-lower activation energy: initial energy needed for a chemical reaction to occur
64
how enzymes work
-enzymes have 3D ___ that binds to specific ___
-substrates
-enzyme active sites
-when substrate binds, what is the result?
-reaction occurs, resulting in formation of ___
-products no longer ___ active site and are __
-enzymes do this once or over and over?
-enzymes have 3D active site that binds to specific substrates
-substrates: molecules involved in a chemical reaction an enzyme catalyzes
-enzyme active sites normally can only bind to one substrate: like a lock and key
-when substrate(s) bind, resulting structure called the "enzyme-substrate complex"
-reaction occurs, resulting in formation of products
-products no longer fit in active site and are released
-enzymes can do this over and over
65
cell shapes
-many different shapes
-help determine function
66
cell size
-cells are ___ because they need a high ratio of what?
-cells need to exchange material with what?
-volume increases with cell size faster/slower than surface area
-cells are small because they need a high surface area to volume ratio
-cells need to exchange material with other cells and the outside world
-volume increases with cell size faster than surface area
67
plasma membrane
-function
-composition
-separates intracellular and extracellular materials
-composition: phospholipids (79%), cholesterol (19%), membrane proteins (2%)
68
phospholipids
-amphipathic
-____ head
---made of ___
---polar/nonpolar
-____ tail
---made of ___
---polar/nonpolar
-phospholipids arrange themselves into a ___
---where they face
-some are ___: include a carbohydrate attachment
-amphipathic: have hydrophobic and hydrophilic component
-hydrophilic head
---made of glycerol and phosphate
---polar (does not have symmetrical charges_
-hydrophobic tail
---made of 2 fatty acids
-nonpolar (charges more symmetrical)
-phospholipids arrange themselves into a bilayer
---two layers of phospholipids
---hydrophilic heads face outward toward the water (ECF or cytoplasm)
---hydrophobic tails kept in middle away from water
-some are glycolipids: include a carbohydrate attachment
69
cholesterol
-class? precursor to what
-interspersed among ___
-affect membrane ____
---phospholipids, embedded proteins, and entire membrane constantly ___
---membranes can even __ to one another
---low cholesterol concentration leads to increased/reduced fluidity (more___)
---high cholesterol concentration increases/decreases membrane fluidity
-lipid-precursor to steroids
-interspersed among phospholipids
-affect membrane fluidity
---phospholipids, embedded proteins, and entire membrane constantly move
---membranes can even fuse to one another
---low cholesterol concentration leads to reduced fluidity (more stiffness)
---high cholesterol concentration increases membrane fluidity
70
plasma membrane proteins
-many types, functions
-include ___
-^give definition
-____ and glycolipids form the ___
-^ definition of second __
-include glycoproteins
-glycoproteins: proteins with carbohydrate attached
-glycoproteins and glycolipids form the glycocalyx: carbohydrates extending off cell membrane
-glycocalyx: provides protection and identification
71
plasma membrane receptor protein: receptors
-proteins with a receptor site that binds to ___, allowing for cellular ___
-___: any chemical used for ____
-receptors are specific for (usually) 1 ___
-second messenger systems
-proteins with a receptor site that binds to ligands, allowing for cellular communication
-ligands: any chemical used for signaling/communication
-receptors are specific for (usually) 1 ligand
-second messenger systems: a ligand binding to a receptor protein leads to the release of many other messenger molecules (second messengers) inside the cell - greatly increasing effect
72
plasma membrane protein: channel proteins
-proteins with a ___ allowing smaller molecules in/out of the cell
-__ channels: always open
-__ channels: can be opened or closed
---ligand-gated
---voltage
---mechanical
-proteins with a passage allowing smaller molecules in/out of the cell
-leak channels: always open
-gated channels: can be opened or closed
---ligand-gated: opened/closed when they bind to a ligand
---voltage: open/closed when charge across membrane (membrane potential) changes
---mechanical: open/closed due to physical forces
73
plasma membrane protein: carrier protein
-___ proteins that carry smaller molecules across plasma membrane
-how it works: molecule binds to cite ___ carrier, carrier protein changes ___, ___ is released to other side of membrane
-transport proteins that carry smaller molecules across plasma membrane
-how it works: molecule binds to cite within carrier, carrier protein changes conformation, molecule is released to other side of membrane
74
pumps
-___ proteins that require ___
-move molecules up/down their gradient
- ___ pump that pumps in/out _ Na+ and pumps in/out _ K+
-carrier proteins that require ATP
-move molecules up their gradient
-sodium-potassium pump that pumps out 3 Na+ and pumps in 2 K+
75
types of carrier proteins (3 types)
-uniporters: move one type of molecule
-coupled/co-transporters: move two types of molecules
---symporters: move 2 molecules same direction
---antiporters: move 2 molecules in opposite directions
76
selective permeability
-cells must maintain their ___
-the plasma membrane is ___ to help with this
-selective permeability
---plasma membrane is permeable to some substances like ___ and ___ that must be exchanged
---impermeable to others, like ___ and many ___ that need to be kept in/out
-cells must maintain their homeostasis (a constant internal environment)
-the plasma membrane is selectively permeable to help with this
-selective permeability
---plasma membrane is permeable to some substances like nutrients and wastes that must be exchanged
---impermeable to others, like proteins and many charged atoms (ions) that need to be kept in/out
77
membrane transport allows movements of molecules that must be exchanged with the ___
-types of membrane transport
membrane transport allows movements of molecules that must be exchanged with the ECF
-passive: simple and facilitated diffusion
-active: primary and secondary active transport
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passive transport
-membrane transport that requires no ___
-molecules move by ___
-___: the movement of molecules ___ (___ --> ___) concentration or electrical gradient
-types of diffusion
-membrane transport that requires no energy expenditure
-molecules move by diffusion
-diffusion: the movement of molecules down (high --> low) concentration or electrical gradient
-types of diffusion: simple, facilitated, and osmosis
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passive transport: simple diffusion
-movement of molecules ____ through phospholipids
-__ and __ can pass ___ through phospholipid bilayer
-movement of molecules directly through phospholipids
-lipids and gasses can pass directly through phospholipid bilayer
80
passive transport: facilitated diffusion
-movement of molecules ___ their gradient using ___ or ___
-movement of molecules down their gradient using carrier proteins or channel proteins
81
passive transport: osmosis
-the diffusion of water
-water moves from area of low solute (high water) concentration to an area of high solute (low water) concentration through aquaporin channel proteins
82
passive transport: osmosis: tonicity
-definition
-hypotonic
-hypertonic
-isotonic
-tonicity: the ability for a solution to affect the water volume of a cell
-hypotonic: has lower solute concentration than outside the cell than inside the cell-->water enters the cell (bursts)
-hypertonic: has greater solute concentration outside the cell than inside the cell --> water leaves the cell (shrivels up)
-isotonic: has equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell--> no net fluid movement
83
active transport
-membrane transport requiring ___ proteins and ___
-moves molecules _ (__-->__ concentration) their gradient
-types
-membrane transport requiring carrier proteins and energy from ATP
-moves molecules up (low-->high concentration) their gradient
-types: primary and secondary
84
primary active transport
-movement of molecules using ___
-example
-movement of molecules using ATP directly
-Na-K pump: energy from ATP helps carrier protein change conformation
85
secondary active transport
-movement of molecules using energy from ___
-done my ___
----molecule A moves up/down its concentration gradient, ___ the movement of the molecule B up/down its concentration gradient
---molecule A's concentration gradient is created by a ____
-SGLT
---moves sodium and glucose into/out of the cell
---sodium moved up/down concentration gradient, glucose up/down
---sodium has a concentration gradient because the ___ uses ATP to pump it into/out of the cell
-movement of molecules using energy from ATP indirectly
-done my co-transporters
----molecule A moves down its concentration gradient, powering the movement of the molecule B up its concentration gradient
---molecule A's concentration gradient is created by a primary active transporter
-SGLT
---moves sodium and glucose into the cell
---sodium moved down concentration gradient, glucose up
---sodium has a concentration gradient because the Na-K pump uses ATP to pump it out of the cell
