Exam 1 Flashcards
(553 cards)
1
Q
Anatomy
A
scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure, such as the size and
shape of a bone.
2
Q
Physiology
A
scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
3
Q
Gross
A
structures examined without a microscope
4
Q
Regional
A
studied area by area
5
Q
Systemic
A
studied system by system
6
Q
surface
A
external form used to visualize deeper structures
7
Q
cytology
A
cellular anatomy
8
Q
histology
A
study of tissues
9
Q
x-ray
A
electromagnetic radiation moves through body and is exposed on photographic plate; creates radiograph
10
Q
ultrasound
A
sound waves pass into body and bounce back to receiver;
visualized as a sonogram
11
Q
computed tomography (ct)
A
computer-analyzed x-ray images
12
Q
Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
A
similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye to enhance differences in areas
13
Q
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
A
radio waves directed to patient while under electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by computer
14
Q
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
A
radioactively labeled glucose usage by a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic state
15
Q
ultrasound
A
uses high-frequency sound waves, strikining internal organs and bouncing back to the reciever on the skin.
16
Q
cell physiology
A
examines processes in cells
17
Q
systemic physiology
A
functions of organ systems
18
Q
neurophysiology
A
focuses on the nervous system
19
Q
cardiovascular physiology
A
the heart and the blood vessels
20
Q
pathology
A
structural and functional changes caused by disease
21
Q
exercise physiology
A
changes in structure and funciton caused by exercise
22
Q
chemical level
A
interaction of atoms and molecules
23
Q
cell level
A
structural and functional unit of living organisms. Combinations of molecules for structures called organelles that carry out specific functions
24
Q
tissue level
A
group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. Four tissue types- epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
25
organ level
two or more tissues functioning together
26
organ system
group of organs functioning together
27
organism
any living thing, whether composed of one cell or many
28
integumentary system
-provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D
-consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands
29
skeletal system
-provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fats.
-consists of bones, associayed cartilages, ligaments and joints.
30
muscular system
-produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat.
-consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.
31
nervous system
-majpr regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions
-consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
32
endocrine system
-major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and other functions
-consists of glands such as the pituitary which secretes hormones
33
cardiovascular system
-transports waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature
-consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
34
lymphatic system
-removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract.
-consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs
35
respiratory system
-exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH
-consists of the lungs and respiratory passages
36
digestive system
-performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes.
-consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs
37
urinary system
-removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance
-consist of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine
38
female reproductive system
-produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development, produces milk for newborn, produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors
-consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures
39
male reproductive system
-produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors.
-consists of testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis
40
integumentary system
41
skeletal system
42
muscular system
43
nervous sytem
44
endocrine system
45
cardiovascular system
46
lymphatic system
47
respiratory system
48
digestive system
49
urinary system
50
female reproductive system
51
male reproductive system
52
organization
condition in which there are specific interrelationships
and functions among the parts of an organism
53
metabolism
the ability to used energy to perform vital functions; all
chemical reactions of the body
54
responsiveness
ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary
55
growth
increase in size and/or number of cells
56
development
changes in an organism over time
57
differentiation
change from general to specific
58
morphogenesis
change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism
59
reproduction
formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring
60
survival needs
nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropiate atmospheric pressure
61
which nutrients are needed for survival?
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, E, K, and minerals Fe, K, Na, Mg, Ca, etc.
62
why do we need nutrients?
chemicals for energy and cell building
63
why do we need oxygen?
essential for energy release (ATP production)
64
why do we need water?
-most abundant chemical in the body
-site of chemical reactions
65
what is the importance of a normal body temp?
affects the rate of chemical reactions
66
why do we need an appropiate atmospheric pressure?
for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
67
homeostasis
-bodies ability to maintain stability in response to changes in the internal and external environments
-dynamic state of equilibrium
68
homestasis #2
values of variables fluctuate around the set point to establish a normal range of values
69
set point
the ideal normal value of a variable
70
components of homeostasis
receptors (sensors), effectors, and control center
71
receptors
-monitors the environment
-responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
72
control center
-determines the set point at which the variable in maintained
-recieves input from receptor
-determines appropriate response
73
effectors
-recieves output from control center
-provides the means to respond
-repsonse acts to reduce or enchance the stimulus (feedback)
74
diagnosis
finding of the specific cause of the homeostatic imbalance
75
homeostatic control systems
positive and negative feedback
76
negative feedback
moving the stimulus in the opposite direction
77
positive feedback
amplifies the stimulus in the same direction
78
what are most body processes controlled by?
negative feedback
79
sweating or shivering
negative feedback
80
thermostat in house
negative feedback
81
regulation of blood pressure and oxygen levels in body
negative feedback
82
positive feedback
response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
83
enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
positive feedback
84
breast-feeding
positive feedback
85
platelet plug formation and blood clotting
positive feedback
86
necessary life functions
* maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
* movement (contractility)
* responsiveness: ability to sense and respond to stimuli
* digestion
* metabolism (cell respiration)
* excretion
* reproduction
* growth
87
examples of responsiveness
-withdrawal reflex
-control of breathing rate
88
digestion
breakdown of ingested food and absorption of simple molecules into blood
89
maintain boundaries between environments
cell level (plasma membrane) and organism level (skin)
90
movement (contractility)
body parts (skeletal muscle)
91
metabolism
all chemical reactions that occur in body cells
92
types of metabolism
catabolism and anabolism
93
metabolism equation
02+glucose = ATP + CO2 + H20 + Heat
94
catabolism
break down of substances (digestion)
95
excretion
removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
ex: urea, co2, feces
96
reproduction
meiosis- production of offspring
97
growth
increase in size of a body part or of organism
ex mitosis : cellular division for growth or repair
98
disturbance of homeostasis
-increases risk of disease
-contributes to changes associated with aging
-negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed and may allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over
99
anatomical position
body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward
100
supine
lying face upward
101
prone
lying face downward
102
superior (cephalic)
above or nearer to head
103
inferior (caudal)
below or away from head
104
medial
toward middle or center
ex: chest is medial to arm
105
lateral
away from middle
ex: ears lateral to nose
106
proximal
situated nearer to center or point of attachment to body
107
distal
situated away from center or point of attachment
108
superficial
closer to surface of body
109
deep
further from surface of body or more internally placed
110
anterior (ventral)
forward
111
posterior (dorsal)
toward back
112
frontal
forehead
113
orbital
eye
114
nasal
nose
115
oral
mouth
116
cervical
neck
117
pectoral
chest
118
sternal
breastbone
119
mammary
breast
120
abdominal
abdomen
121
umbilical
navel
122
pelvic
pelvis
123
inguinal
groin
124
pubic
genital
125
otic
ear
126
buccal
cheek
127
mental
chin
128
clavicular
collarbone
129
axillary
armpit
130
brachial
arm
131
antecubital
front of elbow
132
antebrachial
forearm
133
carpal
wrist
134
pollex
thumb
135
palmar
palm
136
digital
fingers
137
coxal
hip
138
femoral
thigh
139
patellar
kneecap
140
crural
leg
141
talus
ankle
142
dorsum
top of foot
143
digital
toes
144
hallux
big toe
145
trunk region
consists of thoracic, abdomen, and pelvis
146
manual
hand
147
pedal
foot
148
occipital
base of skull
149
nuchal
back of neck
150
scapular
shoulder blade
151
vertebral
spinal column
152
153
lumbar
back
154
sacral
between hips
155
gluteal
buttock
156
perineal
perineum
157
cranial
skull
158
acromial
point of shoulder
159
olecranon
point of elbow
160
dorsum
back of hand
161
popliteal
hollow behind knee
162
sural
calf
163
plantar
sole
164
calcaneal
heel
165
sagittal
divides body into left and right portions
166
median
sagittal plane down midline of body
167
frontal (coronal)
divides body into anterior and posterior sections
168
transverse (horizontal)
divides body into superior and inferior sections
169
oblique
other than at a right angle
170
sagittal
171
frontal
172
transverse
173
longitudal
cut along the length of an organ
174
transverse (Cross)
cut at right angle to the length of the organ
175
oblique
cut at any but a right angle
176
longtitudal
177
transverse
178
oblique
179
180
181
cranial cavity
houses brain
182
vertebral canal
houses the spinal cord
183
thoracic cavity
containing pleural cavity and mediastinum all containing lungs, the heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, and esophagus
184
abdominopelvic cavity
consists of abdominal and pelvic cavity
185
abdominal cavity
contains many digestive organs like stomach, instestines, liver and spleen
186
pelvic cavity
contains urinary bladder, urethra, rectum, and reproductive organs
187
188
189
serous membranes
cover the organs of body cavities and line the cavity
190
visceral serous membrane
inner membranes lining a body cavity or the organ
191
parietal serous membrane
lines the cavity
192
pericardium
surrounds the heart; contains pericardial fluid
193
pleura
surrounds the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity; contains pleural fluid
194
peritoneum
surrounds many abdominal organs and lines the abdominopelvic cavity; contains peritoneal fluid
195
mesentery
regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum that is attached to certain points to the posterior abdominopelvic wall
196
retroperitoneal
behind the peritoneum; organs or parts of organs that only have peritoneum on their peritoneal cavity side; includes the kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, part of the pacreas, parts of the large intestine, and the urinary bladder.
197
pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium
198
pleurisy or pleuritis
inflammation of the pleura
199
periotonitis
inflammation of the peritoneum
200
James 5:12
dont press the snooze button
201
1 John 1:9
take a spiritual shower
202
four forms of energy
chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant or electromagnetic
203
chemical energy
stored in the bonds of chemical substances
204
electrical energy
results from the movement of charged particles or electrons
205
mechanical energy
directyly involved in moving matter
206
electromagnetic energy
energy traveling in waves
207
conservation of energy principal
states the total amount of energy in the universe is constant. no energy is created or destroyed, only changing in form.
208
some energy is transformed into heat when converting forms
example: cell respiration
oxygen +glucose = ATP + carbon dioxide + water+heat
209
two types of energy
potential and kinetic
210
potential energy
energy of position; stored (inactive) energy
211
kinetic energy
energy in action
212
matter
anything that has mass and takes up space
213
four states of matter
solid, liquid, gas, and plasma
214
solid
definite shape and volume
215
liquid
definite volume, changeable shape
216
gas
changeable shape and volume
217
plasma
what space is made of
218
mass
amount of matter in an object
219
weight
gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass
220
element
simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties; composed of atoms of only one kind
221
atom
smallest partivle of an element that has chemical characteristics of that element
222
four most common elements in body
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen
223
other trace elements
fluorine
(F), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), sulfur
(S), chlorine (Cl), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe),
and iodine (I).
224
percentage that four main elements make up of our body weight
96.5%
225
oxygen % in body
65%
226
carbon % in body
18.6%
227
228
hydrogen % in body
9.7%
229
nitrogen % in body
3.2%
230
lesser elements % body
3.9%
231
trace elements % in body
0.01 %
232
atomic structure
protons, neutrons, and electrons
233
neutrons
no electrical charge
234
protons
one positive charge
235
electrons
one negative charge
236
nucleus
formed by protons and neutrons
237
which subatomic particle occupis most of the volume of an atom?
electrons
represented as an electron cloud
238
what defines an element
the number of protons
239
atomic number
equal to number of protons in each atom, which is equal to electrons
240
mass number
number of protons plus number of neutrons
241
isotopes
two or more forms of same element with same number of protons and electrons but different neutron number. They have the same
atomic number but different mass numbers.
242
atomic mass
average mass of naturally occurring isotopes
243
avogadros number
6.022 x 10^23
244
1 mole
avogadros number of atoms, ions, molecules
245
molar mass
mass of one mole of a substance in grams, which is equal to its atomic mass units
246
ionic
one atom steals an electron from another
247
covalent
atoms share electrons with each other
248
hydrogen bond
opposite charge of molecules attract each other
249
peptide bond
a covalent bond joining the alpha amino
group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of another amino acid through the loss of water forming a peptide. If more than 2 amino acids bind this way we call them a polypeptide, and if over 100 bond this way together we call it a protein
250
molecules
two or more atoms chemically combined to form an independent unit
251
compounds
a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms chemically combined
252
molecular mass
determined by adding up atomic masses of its atoms or ions
253
intermolecular forces
-forces between molecules
-result from weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged parts of molecules, or between ions and molecules
-weaker than forces producing chemical bonding
-determine the properties of solubility and dissociation
254
ionic bonds
atoms that have gained or lost one or more electrons
255
cations
positively charged because they lost electrons
256
anions
negatively charged because they gained electrons
257
ionic bond
electrons transferred between atoms, creating oppositely charged ions that are attracted to each other
258
single covalent
two atoms share one pair of electrons
259
double covalent
two atoms share 4 electrons
260
nonpolar covalent
electrons shared equally because nuclei attract electrons equally
261
polar covalent
electrons not shared equally because one nucleus attracts the electrons more than the other does
262
hydrogen bonding
occur when positively charged H of one molecule is attracted to negatively charged O, N, or F of another molecule
263
solubility
ability of one substance to dissolve in another
264
dissociation (separation)
in ionic compounds, cations are attracted to negative end and anions attracted to positive end of water molecules; the ions separate and each becomes surrounded by water molecules
265
electrolytes
solutions made by the dissociation of cations and anions in water
266
electrolyte characteristics
have the capacity to conduct an electric current and currents can be detected by electrodes
267
non electrolytes
solutions made by molecules that dissolve in water but do not dissociate or conduct electricity
268
reactants
substances that enter into a chemical reaction
269
products
substances that result from the reaction
270
dehydration reaction
synthetic reaction where water is a product
271
what do synthesis reactions produce?
chemicals or characteristics of life such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
272
what are synthesis reactions responsible for?
growth, maintenance, and repair
273
decomposition reaction
known as catabolism, broken down into smaller products
274
synthesis reactions
known as anabolism, two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product
275
what happens during decomposition reactions
chemical bonds are broken and energy is released
276
hydrolysis reactions
water is split into two parts that contribute to the formation of the products
277
reversible reactions
chemical reactions in which the reaction can proceed either from reactions to products or from products to reactions
278
equilibrium
rate of product formation is equal to rate of reactant formation
279
oxidation-reduction reactions
the complete or partial loss of an electron by one atom is accompanied by the gain of that electron by another atom
280
oxidation
loss of an electron by an atom
281
reduction
gain of an electron by an atom
282
temperature
chemical reactions proceed quicker at higher temperatures
283
particle size
the smaller the particle the faster the chemical reaction
284
concentration
higher reacting particle concentrations produce faster reactions
285
catalysts
increase the rate of a reaction without being chemically changed
286
enzymes
biological catalysts
287
heat energy
-form of energy that flows from a hotter object to a cooler object
-energy that is released but not captured is released as heat
288
inorganic chemistry
substances that do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds
289
organic chemistry
study of carbon-containing substances
290
hydrophilic
substances attracted to water; "water-loving"
291
hydrophobic
substances not attracted to water; "water-fearing"
292
cohesion
molecules of the same substance attracting one another
293
surface tension
molecules do not want to separate from one another
294
what is a key property of blood?
cohesion
295
properties of water
-stabilizing body temperature
-large amounts of heat can be absorbed by water but it will stay at a fairly stable temperature
-water evaporates= removal of excess heat from surface of body
-protection; acts as a lubricant to reduce friction between body parts, forms liquid cushion around organs (bursa)
-participates in chemical reactions (dehydration and hydrolysis reactions)
-mixing medium allowing transport throughout body
296
mixture
substances physicially but not chemically combined
ex: oil and vinegar
297
solution
mixture of liquids, gases, or solids that are uniformly distributed
298
solvent
dissolves the solute
ex: water
299
solute
dissolves in the solvent
ex: salt
300
suspension
materials separate unless stirred
301
colloid
dispersal of tiny particles through a medium that does not settle out
302
concentration
measure of number of particles of solute per volume of solution
303
osmolality
reflects the number of particles dissolved in one kilogram of water
304
osmole
equal to avogadros number of particles in one kilogram of water
305
milliosmoles
low concentrations in the human body
306
acid
a proton donor or any substance that releases hydrogen ions
307
base
a proton acceptor or any substance that binds to or accepts hydrogen ions
308
completely dissociate in water
strong acids and bases, creating high number of H+ or OH- ions
309
partially dissociate in water
weak acids or bases
310
which type of of acid/bases is easily reversible?
weak acids or bases
311
neutral
pH of 7 or equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxide ions
312
acidic
pH of less than 7 with a greater concentration of hydrogen ions
313
Alkaline (basic)
pH of greater than 7 and a greater concentration of hydroxide ions
314
normal pH range of blood
7.35 to 7.45
315
acidosis
pH drops below 7.35 and occurs within the nervous system which becomes depressed and the individual may become disoriented and possibly comatose.
316
alkalosis
pH of blood rises above 7.45 and the nervous system becomes overexcitable and the individual may be very nervous or have convulsions.
317
salt
a compound consisting of a cation other than a hydrogen ion and an ion other than a hydroxide ion
318
buffer
a solution of a conjugate acid-base pair in which acid and base components occur in similar concentrations; this combinations resists changes in pH when either acids or bases are added to the solution
319
three main buffer systems in the body
-carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system
-phophate buffer system
-protein buffer system
320
oxygen
required in the final step in the series of reactions used to extract energy from food
321
carbon dioxide
produced during the catabolism of organic compounds
322
organic compounds
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
323
carbohydrates
* composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
* Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
* Energy sources, structure, and bulk for elimination.
* Water soluble
324
lipids
* composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
* Relatively insoluble in water.
* Functions: protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component
of cell membranes, energy storage.
325
proteins
* composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sometimes sulfur.
* Functions: regulate processes, aid transport, protection, muscle
contraction, structure, energy.
326
nucleic acids
* composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus.
* Examples: ATP, DNA, RNA
327
monosaccharides
-simple sugars like glucose
-isomers; molecules that have the same number/types of atoms but differ in their 3-d arrangment
-five carbon sugars are components of ATP, DNA, and RNA
328
disaccharides
-two simple sugars bound together by a dehydration reaction
-examples; sucros, lactose, maltose
329
polysaccharides
-long chain of many monosaccharides
-storage molecules
-glycogen formed by animals
-starch and cellulose formed by plants
330
lipids (fats)
ingested and broken down by hydrolysis
331
triglycerides
-composed of glycerol and fatty acids
-each fatty acid has a carboxyl group
-fatty acids combine with glycerol to form triglyceride
332
lipids function
protection, insulation, energy source
333
saturated fats
contains all single bonds in the carbon chain, which produces a more rigid structure; generally solid
334
unsaturated fats
contains one (mono) or more (poly) double bonds in the carbon chain, which produces a more relaxed structure; generally liquid
335
trans fat
unsaturated fats that are artificially altered to be more saturated. Are the highest cardiovascular risk fat.
336
phospholipids
One fatty acid replaced with a phosphate group; polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.
337
phospholipid function
important structural component of cell membranes
338
Eicosanoids
derived from fatty acids
339
eicosanoids function
important regulatory molecules
340
fat-soluble vitamins
nonpolar molecules essential for normal functioning
341
steroids
lipids with four ring like structures
342
cholesterol
component of cell membranes; precursor for steroid hormones
343
bile salts
digestion and absorption of lipids
344
reproductive steroid hormones
estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone
345
amino acids
building blocks of proteins
346
peptide bonds
covalent bonds formed between amino acids during protein synthesis by dehydration
347
amino acid structure
amino group , carboxyl group, and hydrogen off the central carbon. R side makes the 20 amino acids different.
348
protein structure
primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, and quaternary structure.
349
primary structure
amino acid sequence
350
secondary structure
-results from hydrogen bonding between amino acids
-pleated sheets or helices
351
denaturation
change in shape caused by breaking of H-bonds by heat or pH changes
352
tertiary structure
large-scale folding due to interactions within protein and surrounding environment (generally water)
353
quaternary structure
results from the association of two or more proteins
354
primary structure
355
secondary structure
356
tertiary structure
357
quaternary structure
358
enzymes
protein catalysts that lower activation energy necessary for reaction to occur
359
active site
where reactants attach
360
lock and key model
reaction occurs when reactants bind to active site
361
induced fit model
enzymes change shape to accomodate the shape of the specific reactants
362
cofactors
nonprotein substances that combine with active site and make nonfunctional enzymes functional
363
Nucleic acids are composed of
nucleotides
364
nucleotides
composed of a five carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate
365
DNA
genetic material of cells copied from one generation to next
366
nitrogenous bases
Adenine,Thymine,Cytosine,Guanine
367
which base pairs connect?
A and T, G and C
368
gene
sequence of bases that codes for synthesis of RNA
or protein
369
catobolism of ATP
ADP + Pi + energy --> atp
370
anabolism of ATP
ATP ---> ADP + Pi + energy
371
cell theory
-cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life
-organismla activity depends on individual and collective activity of cells
-biochemical activities of cells are dictated by subcellular structure (organelles)
-continuity of life has a cellular basis
372
cells specialize or differentiate:
-to form tissues
-by turning off all genes not needed by that cell
373
cytoplasm
material between plasma membrane and the nucleus
374
cytosol
largely water with dissolved protein, salts, sugars, and
other solutes
375
inclusions
chemical substances such as glycosomes, glycogen
granules, and pigment
375
cytoplasmic organelles
metabolic machinery of the cell
376
what must be used to see cells?
miscroscope
377
resolution of a light microscope?
0.1 um
*examine tissues and cells/requires stain
378
resolution of electron microscope?
0.1 nm
379
scanning microscope
three dimensional surface features
380
transmissions microscope
view internal structures
381
atomic force microscope
* tiny probe scans sample
* very high resolution
* reveals surface toopography
382
how close can we see with a light microscope?
up to 1000x
383
how close can we see with an electron microscope?
up to 10,000,000x
384
cell differentiation
Development of specific and distinctive features in cells
385
cell aging
-Wear and tear theory attributes aging to little chemical insults and formation of free radicals that have cumulative
effects throughout life
-Genetic theory attributes aging to cessation of mitosis that is programmed into our genes
386
plasma membrane
-separation of intracellular vs extracellular materials
-production of charge difference across the membrane (outside of membrane charged positvely compared to inside)
- glycocalyx
- -7.5 - 10 nm thick
-3 part layer
387
what is glycocalyx?
combinations of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glycoproteins) on outer surface
388
function of plasma membrane
-physical barrier: selective barrier regulating the passage of certain material in and out of cell
-selective permeability: regulates transport of specific molecules across its surface
-communication: contains receptors than respond to signals
-intercellular connections: establishes a flexible boundary, protein cellular contents, an supports cell structure
389
marker molecules or self antigens
| glycoproteins/glycolipids
Allow cells to identify one
another or other molecules
* Immunity
* Recognition of oocyte by
sperm cell
* Intercellular communication
390
marker protein
391
fluid mosaic model
double bi layer of lipids w embedded, disperse proteins
392
phospholipid bi layer
-outer and inner parts are hydrophilic (phosphorous heads)
-central area is fatty acids and cholestrol are hydrophobic (tails)
-cholesterol packs center and restricts fatty acid movement stabilizing the membrane
393
tight junction
impermeable junction that encircles the cell
394
desmosome
anchoring junction scattered along the sies of cells
395
gap junction
a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass between cells
396
tight junctions
397
desmosome
398
gap junction
399
membrane protein function
1. Transport
2. Enzymatic activity
3. Receptors for signal
transduction
4. Intercellular adhesion
5. Cell-cell recognition
6. Attachment to
cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix
(stability)
400
channel proteins
acts like a pore than lets water and small ions pass through quickly
401
channel protein
402
carrier protein or transporters
integral proteins move ions from one side of membrane to the other
403
characteristics of carrier proteins
* Have specific binding sites
* Protein changes shape to transport
ions or molecules
* Resumes original shape after
transport
404
forms of carrier proteins
uniporters, symporters, antiporters
405
uniporters
move one particle
406
symporters
move two particles in the same direction at same time
407
antiporters
move two particles in opposite directions at same time
408
uniport
409
symport
410
antiport
411
impermeable
nothing in or out
412
freely permeable
lets anything pass through
413
selectively permeable
restricts movement in and out of cell
414
what type of membrane is a cell membrane?
selectively permeable
414
what are the restricted materials from getting into cell based on?
* size
* electrical charge
* molecular shape
* lipid solubility
415
transport through a cell membrane can be
active or passive
416
active transport
requires energy or ATP
417
passive transport
no energy required
418
3 categories of transport
* diffusion (passive)
* carrier-mediated transport (passive or active)
* vesicular transport (active)
419
cell transport mechanisms:
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated Diffusion
4. Active Transport
5. Vesicular Transport
a. Phagocytosis
b. Pinocytosis
c. Endocytosis-import
d. Exocytosis- export
420
diffusion
* solutes move down a concentration gradient from greater to lesser concentration
421
what factors affect diffusion rates?
distance, molecular size (smaller = faster), or temperature (more heat =faster), gradient size, electrical forces
422
osmosis
* diffusion of water across cell membrane
* passive transport
* water moves from low concentration of solute to high concentration of solute
423
osmotic pressure
force required to prevent water from moving
424
isosmotic
solutions with the same concentrations of solute particles
425
hyperosmotic
solution with a greater concentration of solute
426
hyposmotic
solution with a lesser concentration of solute
427
isotonic
neither shrinks nor swells
428
hypertonic
cell shrinks
429
hypotonic
cell swells
430
hypotonic
| contains lower concentration of solute than present in cell
431
isotonic
432
hypertonic
| contains higher concentration of solute than is present in cell
433
example of facilitiated diffusion
glucose
434
active transport
* move against concentration gradient
* requires energy
* ion pumps
435
endocytosis
cell membrane folds or fuses around material in order to take into cell
436
3 types of endocytosis
phagocytosis, fluid phase endocytosis, vesicular transport
437
phagocytosis
“cell eating” cytoplasmic process meets and fuses, engulfing material into a intracellular vacuole called a Phagosome.
(macrophages, neutrophils)
438
fluid phase endocytosis
“cell drinking”-fluid is trapped in a fold in
the membrane. The membrane pinches off (Pinocytosis) into the cell and
usually fuses with a lysosome (contains digestive enzymes) or move the
vesicle across the cell and expulse it (Exocytosis) thereby allowing the
material to cross the cells barrier. The entire process would be called
Transcytosis
439
vesicle transport
import and export materials via vesicles
440
exocytosis
reverse endocytosis
441
mitochondria
-main function is to produce ATP
-Contain their own DNA and RNA
-major site of ATP synthesis
442
what is the number of mitochondria proportional to?
cells energy needs ie heart, skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney cells have alot of mitochondria
443
rough endoplasmic reticulum
-has attaches ribosomes
-proteins produced and modified
444
smooth er
-no attached ribosomes
-manufactures lipids
-detoxification
445
function of rough er
produce proteins for rest of cell
site of protein synthesis
446
smooth er function
-site of lipid synthesis
-catalyzes various reactions in organs of body
447
# l
golgi apparatus
-site of carbohydrate synthesis
-acts as a packaging facility and packages proteins and carbs with lipid coats
448
lysosomes
-spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
-digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
-breakdown nonuseful tissue
449
peroxisomes
-membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases
-detoxify harmful or toxic substances
-neutralize dangerous free radicals that can cause cancer and DNA mutations
450
proteosomes
-consist of large protein complexes
-include several enzyms that break down and recycle non-functional proteins into amino acids for cell
451
cytoskeleton
-consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments
452
microtubules
-dynamic, hollow tubes made of the spherical protein **tubulin**
-determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles by forming compartments
453
microfilaments
-attached to cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane
-braces and strengthens cell surface
454
intermediate filaments
-tough, insoluble protein fibers with high tensile strength
-resist pulling forces on cell and help form desmosomes
455
microfilament
456
intermediate filament
457
microtubule
458
centrioles/spindle fibers
-located in centrosome
-center of microtubule formation
-used in cell division
459
microvilli
-extension of plasma membrane
-increase the cell surface area
-normally many on each cell
-do not move
460
cilia
capable of movement and moves materials over the cell surface such as mucous in trachea of respiratory tract
461
flagella
-similar to cilia but longer
-usually only one per cell
-move the cell in a wave-like fashion
462
nucleus
-contains nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin
-gene containing control center of cell
-contains genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
-dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized
463
nuclear envelope
paired membrane that regulates macromolecular flow in and out of nucleus
464
chromatin
non-dividing cells --- uncoiled state
dividing cells-- mainly coiled strands of DNA bound to histones
465
heterochromatin
condensed and coiled
466
euchromatin
less dense and less coiled
467
nucleosome
basic structural unit of chromatin and histones
468
nucleoli
site of ribosome production
469
three types of RNA
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
470
mRNA
carries the genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
471
tRNA
bound to amino acids base pair with the
codons of mRNA at the ribosome to begin the process of protein
synthesis
472
rRNA
structural component of ribosomes
473
transcription
-strans of DNA are separated, RNA polymerase binds at a promoter region, RNA polymerage catalyzes formation of mRNA using DNA as template , ends at terminator sequence
474
what is most of a cells life spent in?
interphase, the nondividing state
475
which stages does interphase consist of?
g1, s, and g2
476
two types of cell division
mitosis and meiosis
477
mitosis
essential for body growth and tissue repair
* 1 cell produces two identical cells with (46)
478
meiosis
essential for procreation
* 1 cell divides twice resulting in 4 unique cells with half
the number of chromosomes(23)
479
what happens during interphase?
DNA replication
480
prophase
nuclear envelope disintegrates, chromatin condenses, spindles attach to kinetochore
481
metaphase
chromosomes are aligned at the nuclear equator
482
anaphase
spindles separate the chromatids, cytokinesis begins
483
telophase
chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis continues
484
cytokinesis
cytoplasmic division, separate process from mitosis
485
g1
metabolic activity and vigorous growth
486
g0
cells that permanently cease dividing
487
S
dna replication
488
g2
preparation for division
489
epithelial
covers or lines
490
connective
connects tissue
491
muscle
moves tissue
492
nervous
stimulates tissue
493
naming epithelial
layer + shape + epithelial tissue
494
simple
one layer thick , substances pass through easily
495
stratified
more than one layer, functions for protection
496
squamous
flat
simple squamous - easily pass through
stratified squamous - protection
497
cuboidal
cube shaped
either secrete or absorb
498
columnar
column shaped
secrete or absorb
499
simple squamous location
alveoli of lungs, capillaries
500
simple cuboidal location
kidney tubulues, small glands
501
simple columnar location
small intestines
502
stratified squamous location
skin, mouth, anus, vagina
503
transtional epithelium
Epithelial type transitions from one type to another. Example-
Urinary Bladder and Ureters transition from Stratified cuboidal
epithelium when empty to Stratified squamous epithelium when
full
504
glands
specialized epithelium that secrete a substance
505
exocrine glands
Secrete there substance into a duct
506
endocrine glands
have no duct, secrete there substances
directly into the blood
507
serous
secrete watery (aqueous) solution
- Pleural, pericardial and mesentary
508
mucous
ecrete a thick mucous solution
-digestive tract , respiratory lining,
reproductive tract
509
connective tissue types
blood, adipose, cartilage, bone, connective tissue proper
510
red blood cells
erythrocytes
carry oxygen
511
white blood cells
leukocytes
fight infection
512
platelets
thrombocytes
clot blood
513
plasma
carries dissolved substances in blood
514
serum
plasma without the clotting factors
515
adipose
gives cushion to organs and stores fat
cells called adipocytes
516
white/yellow fat
carotene
517
brown fat
contains many mitochondria
518
subcutaneous fat
jiggly fat
519
visceral fat
under abdominal muscles and in thoracic cavity
520
cartilage
cells are called chondrocytes and live in a space called lacuna and secrete a substance called matrix
521
3 types of cartilage
hyaline, elastic, fibrous
522
location of hyaline
rib cage, end of long bones
523
elastic cartilage location
found in ear
524
fibrous cartilage location
intervertebral disks
525
three types of bone cells
osteocytes, osteoblast,and osteoclast
526
osteocytes
mature cells than maintain bone matrix
527
osteoblast
produce bone matrix
528
osteoclast
breakdown bone matrix
529
connective tissue proper
loose and dense
530
loose connective tissue types
areolar, adipose, and reticular
531
areolar
between skin/muscle and bone
532
reticular
lymph nodes, spleen
533
dense connective tissue types
regular, irregular, and elastic
534
dense regular
ligaments and tendons
535
dense irregular
dermis and joint capsules
536
dense elastic
plantar fascia and aorta
537
two types of fibers produced by cells
fibroblasts
538
collagen
gives strength to tissue
539
elastic
gives stretch to tissue
540
what determines specific type of connective tissue proper?
ratio of fibers
541
three types of muscle tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
542
skeletal
-major muscle of body
-striated and voluntary
543
cardiac
-found only in heart
-striated and involuntary
-contain intercalated discs that increase strength of contraction
544
smooth
found in digestive tract, blood vessels
non striated and involuntary
545
three parts of nerve cell
dendrites, cell body, and axon
546
dendrites
branches of nerve receptors that bring in sensory information to the nerve (Sensory input)
547
cell body
Interprets the sensory input and formulates a
response (Integration)
548
axon
ransmits response from the cell body to the effector organ. (motor output)
549
effector organ
either another Nerve, Gland or Muscle
550
synapse
space between the nerve and the effector organ
551
three general types of synapses
a. Neuro-neuro junction
b. Neuro-glandular junction
c. Neuromuscular junction
