Exam 1 Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
Gametes
A
germ cells, sperm or egg
2
Q
Conception
A
union of sperm and egg
3
Q
Zygote
A
fertilized egg, has full complement of genetic material
4
Q
Embryo
A
Zygote transforms into embryo
5
Q
Fetus
A
Embryo transforms into fetus
6
Q
Stem Cells
A
embryonic cells, all interchangeable with each other
7
Q
Identical Twins
A
inner cell mass splits in half, resulting in two zygotes with same genetic makeup
8
Q
Fraternal Twins
A
two eggs are released from ovary into Fallopian tube and happen to be fertilized
9
Q
Neural tube
A
one end becomes the brain, other end is spinal cord
10
Q
Amniotic sac
A
Membrane filled with a clear, watery fluid in which the fetus floats
11
Q
Placenta
A
organ that permits the exchange of materials carried in the bloodstreams of fetus and mother
12
Q
Umbilical cord
A
contains blood vessels running from placenta to embryo
13
Q
Cephalocaudal development
A
areas near head developing more rapidly and is seen early in the development
14
Q
Habituation
A
Decreased response to a stimuli after repeated exposure to the stimulus
15
Q
Dose-response relation
A
the greater the fetus’ exposure to a teratogen, the more likely it is that the fetus will suffer damage
16
Q
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
A
results in fetal alcohol syndrome, an effect of mothers drinking during pregnancy, characterized by facial deformation, retardation, attention problems
17
Q
State
A
continuum of arousal, ranging from deep sleep to activity
18
Q
REM Sleep
A
active sleep state that is associated with dreaming in adults that is characterized by quick, jerky, under closed lids
19
Q
Non REM Sleep
A
quiet or deep sleep state
20
Q
Autostimulation theory of REM sleep
A
high level of internally generated brain activity that occurs during REM sleep helps to make up for the natural deprivation of visual stimulation and facilitates development of early visual system
21
Q
Swaddling
A
wrapping a baby tightly in cloths or a blanket, thereby restricting limb movement
22
Q
Infant mortality
A
death during the first year after birth
23
Q
Low birth weight (LBW)
A
infants who weight less than 5.5 pounds
24
Q
Premature
A
born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier and LBW
25
Small for gestational age
LBW infants that weigh substantially less than is normal for their gestational age
26
Developmental resilience
successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards
27
Meta-analysis
method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them
28
Amygdala
an area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions
29
Nature
our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents
30
Nurture
the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
31
Genome
each person's complete set of hereditary information
32
Epigenetics
the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
33
Methylation
a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression
34
Continuous development
the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller
35
Discontinuous development
the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly
36
Stage theories
approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases
37
Cognitive development
the development of thinking and reasoning
38
Neurotransmitters
chemicals involved in communication among brain cells
39
Sociocultural context
the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up an child's environment
40
Socioeconomic status (SES)
a measure of social class based on income and education
41
Cumulative risk
the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development
42
Scientific method
an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion
43
Hypothesis
testable prediction of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations
44
Reliability
the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent
45
Interrater reliability
the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior
46
Test-retest reliability
the degree of similarity of a participant's performance on two or more occasions
47
Validity
the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
48
Internal validity
the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing
49
External validity
the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
50
Structured interview
a research procedure in which all the participants are asked to answer the same questions
51
Questionnaire
a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them a uniform set of printed questions
52
Clinical interview
a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
53
Naturalistic observation
examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher
54
Structured observation
a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participants' behavior
55
Variables
attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, popularity
56
Correlational designs
studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other
57
Correlation
the association between two variables
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Direction-of-causation problem
the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other
59
Third-variable problem
the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable
60
Experimental designs
a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn
61
Random assignment
a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment
62
Experimental control
the ability of researchers to determine he specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment
63
Experimental group
the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest
64
Control group
the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but n other ways are treated similarly
65
Independent variable
the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive
66
Dependent variable
a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable
67
Cross-sectional design
a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period
68
Microgenetic design
a method of study where the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period
69
Genome
the complete set of genes of any organism
70
Genotype
the genetic material an individual inherits
71
Phenotype
the observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behavior
72
Environment
every aspect of an individual and his or her surroundings other than genes
73
Chromosomes
molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information; made up of DNA
74
DNA
molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions involved in the formation and functioning of an organism
75
Genes
sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things
76
Sex chromosomes
the chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an individual's gender
77
Mutation
a change in a section of DNA
78
Crossing over
the process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; promotes variability
79
Endophenotypes
intermediate phenotypes, including the brain and nervous systems, that do not involve overt behavior
80
Regulator genes
Genes that control the activity of other genes
81
Alleles
two or more different forms of a gene
82
Dominant allele
the allele that, if present, gets expressed
83
Recessive allele
the allele that is not expressed if a dominant allele is present
84
Homozygous
having two of the same allele for a trait
85
Heterozygous
having two different alleles for a trait
86
Polygenic inheritance
inheritance in which traits are governed by more than one gene
87
Norm of reaction
all the phenotypes that can theoretically result from a given genotype in relation to all the environments in which is can survive and develop
88
Phenylketonuria (PNU)
a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine
89
Carrier genetic testing
genetic testing used to determine whether prospective parents are carriers of specific disorders
90
Prenatal testing
genetic testing used to assess the fetus's risk for genetic disorders
91
Newborn screening
tests used to screen newborn infants for a range of genetic and non-genetic disorders
92
Behavior genetics
the science concerned with how variation in behavior and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors
93
Heritable
refers to any characteristics or traits that are influenced by heredity
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Multifactorial
Refers to traits that are affected by a host of environmental factors as well as genetic ones
95
Heritability
a statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals
96
Neurons
Cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body, as well as within the brain itself
97
Cell body
A component of the neuron that contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning
98
Dendrites
neural fibers that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
99
Axons
neural fibers that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
100
Synapses
microscopic junctions between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendritic branches or cell body of another
101
Glial cells
cells in the brain that provide a variety of critical supportive functions
102
Myelin sheath
a fatty sheath that forms around certain axons in the body and increases the speed and efficiency of information transmission
103
Cerebral cortex
the "gray matter" of the brain that plays a primary role in what is thought to be particularly humanlike functioning, from seeing and hearing to writing to feeling emotion
104
Lobes
major areas of the cortex associated with general categories of behavior
105
Occipital lobe
the lobe of the cortex that is primarily involved in processing visual information
106
Temporal lobe
the lobe of the cortex that is associated with memory, visual recognition, and the processing of emotion and auditory information
107
Parietal lobe
governs spatial processing as well as integrating sensory input with information stored in memory
108
Frontal lobe
associated with organizing behavior; the one that is though responsible for the human ability to plan ahead, executive functioning
109
Association areas
parts of the brain that lie between the major sensory and motor areas and that process and integrate input from those areas
110
Cerebral hemispheres
the two halves of the cortex; for the most part, sensory input from one side goes to opposite part of brain
111
Corpus callosum
a dense tract of nerve fibers that enable the two hemispheres of brain to communicate
112
Cerebral lateralization
the specialization of the hemispheres of the brain for different modes of processing
113
Neurogenesis
the proliferation of neurons through cell division
114
Spines
formations on the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrites' capacity to form connections with other neurons
115
Myelination
the formation of myelin (a fatty sheath) around the axons of neurons that speeds and increases information processing abilities
116
Synaptogenesis
the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections
117
Synaptic pruning
the normal developmental process through which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
118
Plasticity
the capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
119
Experience-expectant plasticity
the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of experiences that every human who inhabits any reasonably normal environment will have
120
Experience-dependent plasticity
the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual's experiences
121
Secular trends
marked changes in physical development that have occurred over generations
122
Failure to thrive
a condition in which infants become malnourished and fail to grow or gain weight for no obvious medical reason
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