Exam 1 Flashcards

Question

What is environmental epidemiology?

Answer 1

branch of epidemiology that asks: "Is a given exposure hazardous to human health?"

Answer 2

Asbestos in NYC skyscrapers led to elevated deaths in NYC post 9/11; it penetrated the masks of first responders The extent of the disaster was so severe that many developed respiratory and pulmonary problems and cancer, leading to the creation of the World Trade Center Health Program for those affected.

Answer 3

The White House ordered false assurances on air quality, using light microscopy (a poor detector of asbestos) when surveying NYC

Answer 4

Yes, 5000 tons in lower 40 floors of North Tower. Builders said asbestos would prevent "towering inferno" and help keep buildings standing. This introduced a major issue during 9/11 due to asbestos pollution in the air.

Answer 5

federal health program that provides no-cost medical care for certified WTC-related health conditions to those directly affected by 9/11

Answer 6

The study of harmful actions of chemicals on biological tissue; the study of poisons

Answer 7

The WTC Health Program reported elevations in all cancer sites combined, including prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and leukemia

Answer 8

"All things are poisons, for there is nothing without poisonous qualities. It is only the dose which makes a thing a poison."

Answer 9

things that work at a lower dose are more toxic (lower LD50)

Answer 10

1. Species differences in susceptibility 2. Interactions with other exposures 3. Latent period 4. Low dose problem

Answer 11

Measuring risk - calculating the probability and severity of public health harm; it is an empirical scientific activity Judging safety - judging the safety of risks; is a normative, political, economical, and value laden activity

Answer 12

idea that there is an acceptable small amount of each substance (never zero); there is also no such thing as zero risk, its simply dose dependent Example: EPA and FDA acceptable lifetime cancer risk (de minimus) is one in a million

Answer 13

"When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically"

Answer 14

Disease occurrence (or its outcome) is NOT random, but can vary depending on a variety of characteristics and predisposing factors.

Answer 15

time between exposure to an infectious agent and onset of symptoms; typical for each infectious disease but varies depending on dose, route, replication rate, host responses Note: same as latent period, but latent period is for non-infectious ailments (e.g., cancer, heart disease) and has no multiplicative causative agent

Answer 16

Time between non-infectious (e.g., cancer, heart disease) disease acquisition and onset of symptoms; typical for each disease but varies depending on type of disease, etc. No multiplication of causative agent is involved, rather multiple low-dose exposures (some chemicals). Note: same as incubation period, but incubation period is for infectious ailments (e.g., caused by viruses) and has a multiplicative causative agent

Answer 17

the person, place, and time of disease occurrence, tracking what is going on in the world, nation, state, community Purpose: 1. Helps form etiologic (what is causing) hypotheses 2. Helps form public health policy

Answer 18

the occurrence in a community or region of cases of an illness or health-related event clearly in excess of normal expectancy

Answer 19

Heart disease

Answer 20

Disability Adjusted Life-Years and Quality Adjusted Life-Years; both are attempts to express burden of a disease in a single quantification (higher DALYs = greater burden)

Answer 21

Prevalence rate = (# of cases of disease in population at a specified time)/(# of persons in the population at that specified time)

Answer 22

Incidence rate = (# of new cases of a disease in population during a specified period of time)/(# of persons exposed to risk of developing the disease during that period of time)

Answer 23

In 1900, the leading causes of death were mainly infectious diseases like influenza and TB In 1970, the leading cause of death was heart disease, with infectious disease mortality significantly decreasing

Answer 24

the cancer epidemic was arguably just a lung cancer epidemic, with a major spike in lung cancer prevalence due to cigarettes; the prevalence of other cancers has also changed but not to the same extent

Answer 25

autonomous growth of tissue that has escaped the normal restraints on cell proliferation; usually appears as a tumor made of mass of cells and are generally irreversible AKA "abnormal growth of cells" or "unlimited growth of cells" A malignant neoplasm is cancer

Answer 26

the malignant unrestrained proliferation of somatic cells (cells other than germ/reproductive cells); i.e., a malignant neoplasm

Answer 27

malignant tumors (cancer) are capable of invasion, which is the spread of the neoplasms into adjacent structures

Answer 28

malignant tumors (cancer) are capable of metastasis, which is the implantation of the neoplasms into noncontiguous sites

Answer 29

epidemic of lung cancer in males was much greater than that of females, likely due to heightened smoking rates among men

Answer 30

1. Artifactual - errors in the numerator or denominator during calculation 2. Real - changes in demographics, survivorship, or disease incidence People hypothesize artifactual, but the reality is likely real

Answer 31

triad model used to understand the dynamics of infectious disease transmission and propagation that is based on the interactions of the agent (pathogen or poison), host, and environment

Answer 32

Males always die at higher rates than females, even in the womb...however, females have higher condition incidence rate (report more sickness)

Answer 33

Non-whites have greater maternal mortality rates than whites in the U.S.

Answer 34

Stomach cancer used to be very prevalent in the 1950s, but now it is rare; we don't know why rates used to be higher than they are now

Answer 35

Retrospective - study looking for past exposure to a factor Prospective - study that classifies exposure to a factor then follows cohort to see if disease develops

Answer 36

Descriptive: - Mortality - Morbidity Analytic: - Case-control - Cohort (historical for occupation) - Clinical trials

Answer 37

1. Possibility of indirect association (e.g., alcohol ---> stomach cancer is flawed b/c not direct study) 2. Interpretation of negative results 3. Often look at agents one at a time 4. Comparability of data by place and time 5. Mobility problem

Answer 38

It's an indirect association, which cannot assess causality

Answer 39

the presence in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or more contaminants or combinations thereof in such quantities and of such durations as may be or tend to be injurious to human, animal, or plant life, or property, or which unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property or conduct of business

Answer 40

~80% nitrogen and ~20% oxygen

Answer 41

0.4% and growing

Answer 42

Since the start of the industrial revolution we have endured a massive spike in CO2, and now it is >400ppm

Answer 43

smog in Los Angeles due to ground level ozone; NOx + VOCs (hydrocarbons) = ozone precursors + sunlight = ozone

Answer 44

American Tobacco Company gambled that American smokers would buy machine made cigarettes, and it worked. This led to a massive increase in cigarette smoking.

Answer 45

Ads were extremely personalized and companies spend lots of money making them extravagant and enticing. These ads are infamous for advertising health benefits of cigarette ads.

Answer 46

1924 "On the cancer-producing factors in tar" - it was largely ignored

Answer 47

Showed that non-cig smokers lived longer than cig smokers, but the author had many controversial views, causing many to dismiss his work

Answer 48

First major case-control study (retrospective) of cigs and lung cancer. Physician authors interviewed 684 cases of lung cancer on previous smoking, occupation, etc. Due to many problems in the study (different interviewers, no blinding, etc.), results hard to interpret. However, two non-medical investigators also interviewed 100 lung cancer patients and 186 patients with other chest diseases (controls), correcting these problems. Found higher rates of lung cancer proportional to amount smoked.

Answer 49

29 studies as of 1964 all with the same result, confirming the association

Answer 50

1. Studies limited to hospitalized lung cancer patients (not all lung cancer patients) 2. Control groups were hospital patients who may not be representative of the general population with respect to smoking habits 3. The ascertainment of smoking habits may be inaccurate 4. Numerous other important variables were not investigated 5. Association was shown but not relative risk

Answer 51

First cohort (prospective) study of lung cancer and cigarettes. In Oct. 1951, questionnaires on smoking habits were sent to all British physicians. 40k replies received, patients followed for deaths. Confirmed association between smoking and lung cancer/death. Found that the longer its been since you quit smoking, the higher your survival rate.

Answer 52

Starting in 1950, doctors began to steadily stop smoking cigarettes; at the same time, death rate among doctors decreased 38%

Answer 53

Cancer research solicitors had men fill out smoking questionnaire once per year. Received 187k replies. Asked about inhalation practices (how deep), packs/day, death status, etc. Found that smoker has ~10x risk of lung cancer death than non-smokers. Also, deeper inhalation = higher death rate and quitting for longer = lower death rate.

Answer 54

Male smokers have ~23x greater risk and women have ~13x greater risk of lung cancer death than non-smokers

Answer 55

Smokers are more emotionally unstable and have more hectic lives (more marriages, more accidents, etc.) than non-smokers

Answer 56

From 1957-87 the amounts of both tar and nicotine in cigarettes decreased

Answer 57

benzo(a)pyrene

Answer 58

According to one study, "the pharmacologic and bahvioral processes that determine tobacco addiction are similar to those that determine addiction to drugs such as heroin and cocaine"

Answer 59

The 7 Big Tobacco companies were internally aware of the risks of cigarettes yet hid this info from the public. A scientist stole documents entailing how cigarettes are addictive and cause cancer, leading to the development of a major court case. Stolen docs are not viable in court, so the scientist placed the documents in public library at UCSF, allowing them to be used in court.

Answer 60

Study found that spouses of smokers were at greater risk for lung cancer than spouses of nonsmokers due to sidestream smoke; "smoking kills others"

Answer 61

Sidestream smoke contains more bezno(a)pyrene than mainstream smoke

Answer 62

Causes the lungs of children to not develop properly

Answer 63

Causes heart disease

Answer 64

Women who smoke make smaller, unhealthier babies

Answer 65

Agreement reached between states and the 7 major cigarette manufacturers after Big Tobacco was exposed for concealing the dangers of cigarettes from the public. The 7 heads had to give money to each state in a settlement after being sued.

Answer 66

~85-90% of lung cancer is caused by cigarettes

Answer 67

Active smoking causes the most fatalities by far, much more than alcohol, accident, or disease. It is the leading cause of preventable death

Answer 68

Yes, cigarette smoking is down but 34 million American adults still smoke

Answer 69

Cigarette smoking accounts for 1 of 5 deaths in the U.S. More than 10 times as many citizens have died prematurely from cigarette smoking than have died in all the wars fought by the U.S. More deaths are caused each year by cigs than by all deaths from HIV, illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries, suicides, and murders combines

Answer 70

- Cigarette smokers are 2-4x more likely to develop coronary heart disease (CHD) than nonsmokers - Smoking doubles risk for stroke - Smokers 10x more likely to develop peripheral vascular disease

Answer 71

More cancer risk than just the lungs, also increases risk of cancers of the bladder, oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, cervix, kidney, pancreas, stomach, acute myeloid leukemia

Answer 72

10x increase in the risk of dying from COPD. 90% of COPD deaths are from cig smoking

Answer 73

Increased risk for: - infertility - preterm birth - stillbirth - low birth weight - sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

Answer 74

Postmenopausal women who smoke have lower bone density than women who never smoked; women who smoked consequently have an increased risk for hip fracture

Answer 75

Tobacco causes 4 million deaths per year, a figure that will increase to 10 million per year by the late 2020s

Answer 76

"Smoking cessation has major and immediate health benefits, including decreasing the risk of lung and other cancers, heart attack, stroke, and chronic lung disease." The longer someone has been off cigarettes, greater survival rates.

Answer 77

Placing cigarettes in movies like "Rocky" generated much revenue for Big Tobacco

Answer 78

1. Define the burden 2. Find the causes 3. Develop effective solutions 4. Close the gap between the science and practice

Answer 79

The home. Children in these homes have higher levels of cotinine (biological marker of secondhand smoke exposure)

Answer 80

biological marker of secondhand smoke exposure; reliable because only cig smoke elevates serum cotinine

Answer 81

1. Secondhand smoke causes premature death and disability 2. Children are especially vulnerable to the poisons in secondhand smoke 3. Exposure has immediate effects and causes serious disease 4. There is no risk-free level of exposure 5. Eliminating smoking indoors is the only way to reduce the risk from exposure

Answer 82

1. Increased risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 2. Acute respiratory infections 3. Ear infections 4. More severe asthma 5. Slows lung growth

Answer 83

- Increased risk of developing heart disease by 25-30% - Increased risk of developing lung cancer by 20-30%

Answer 84

No... - Immediate effects occur in cardiovascular system, increasing risk of heart attack - Also irritates and damages the lining of the airways

Answer 85

The effects of secondhand smoke on nonsmokers in the U.S. costs nearly $6 billion/year

Answer 86

Judge voided much of the EPA's smoking danger findings. He stated that the EPA had overstepped its authority and that its report on the dangers of secondhand smoke was not supported by substantial evidence. ETS had many critics that this decision appeased, but it does not invalidate the dangers of secondhand smoke.

Answer 87

1 person for every 52 smokers; about one million people worldwide each year

Answer 88

No... - Air handling systems circulate secondhand smoke throughout the building - Air cleaning reduces smells but not the hazardous small particles or gases found in secondhand smoke The only effective public health approach to ETS is banning indoor cigarette smoking.

Answer 89

Following the advent of the factory cigarette rolling machine, smoking gradually boomed. After the 1st Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health, it experienced a gradual decline.

Answer 90

1986 Surgeon General's Report on Secondhand Smoke

Answer 91

Often used if education fails to achieve the intended outcome. We tend to follow the notion that we can compromise individual rights to benefit the collective good. This is the case with indoor cigarette smoking.

Answer 92

In 1992, Madison adopts a plan to phase in a restaurant smoking ban. Restaurants are 100% smoke-free three years later. Second municipality to do so in the state. Bars still legal to smoke in.

Answer 93

Anti-smoking activist in Madison who was a major player in the Madison indoor smoking ban in the 1990s

Answer 94

Anti-anti-smoker who believed that banning indoor smoking was a violation of human rights. She attacked the government and numerous other agencies in her fight for "smoking rights."

Answer 95

Local coalition composed of UW students circulated a petition and teamed with The Smoke Free Madison Organization to push for 100% smoke-free environments in the city. In 2004, smoking in bars was banned in Madison.

Answer 96

Of bartenders and waitstaff, 50% greater risk of lung cancer than the general public, 74% report respiratory symptoms. Current big problem is casino workers.

Answer 97

Electronic device that replicates a cigarette, cigar, or other smoking pipes; activated by inhaling the device, which activates the heating element and releases vapor

Answer 98

Propylene glycol

Answer 99

This is the element that heats up and vaporizes the liquid, creating vapor-like smoke. It is significant because it gives the nicotine of real tobacco but without the tars (e.g., benzo(a)pyrene). In newer vapes, atomizer and cart are a combined "cartomizer."

Answer 100

The primary feature of the Juul is the fact that its e-liquid contains nicotine salts extracted from leaf-based tobacco

Answer 101

Restricts blood vessels and consequently increases blood pressure

Answer 102

Yes, because it gives the nicotine of real tobacco but without the tars (e.g., benzo(a)pyrene), but it's still not safe. Vapes are still associated with lung and cardiopulmonary problems.

Answer 103

The FDA indicated that there are toxic chemicals including a carcinogen known to cause cancer in humans produced by vapes. There are also specific toxicants in cinnamon-flavored e-liquids. In 2014 there were 215 poison center calls involving vapes, with half involving children.

Answer 104

No, according to WHO, e-cigs are not currently used for Nicotine Replacement Therapy due to lack of peer-reviewed studies

Answer 105

- Number of vapes is increasing while number of cigarettes is decreasing - Vape profit pool is increasing while cigarette profit pool is decreasing It is thought that consumption of vapes could surpass consumption of tobacco within the next decade.

Answer 106

Research suggests vaping is bad for the heart and lungs, but there are many unknowns. Seems like health issues largely with THC carts.

Answer 107

No, vaping is part of the indoor smoking ban

Answer 108

Disposables can have flavors, but refillables cannot

Answer 109

Teens and young adults who vape face a much higher risk of COVID-19 than those who do not vape

Answer 110

FDA denied marketing applications for millions of vaping products because they lacked sufficient evidence on the benefits for adult smokers

Answer 111

Vitamin E Acetate, a thickening agent often used in THC vapes; found in all lung fluid samples of EVALI patients (those injured while vaping)

Answer 112

No good epidemiology studies, but as a rule of thumb, eat a brownie or cookie, don't smoke it. Smoking in general damages the lungs and can cause cardiovascular problems. Vaping THC carts is associated with lung injury and heart problems.

Answer 113

Using marijuana during adolescence may affect how the brain builds connections for functions like attention, memory, and learning

Answer 114

1. Inspiration - process of taking in air 2. Expiration - process of blowing out air

Answer 115

1. Passageway for respiration 2. Receptors for smell 3. Filters incoming air for larger foreign material 4. Moistens air and warms incoming air 5. Has resonating chambers for voice

Answer 116

warms, moistens, and filters air as it is inhaled

Answer 117

passageway for air, leads to the trachea

Answer 118

the voice box, where vocal chords are located

Answer 119

keeps the windpipe "open;" lined with fine hairs called cilia which filter air before it reaches the lungs

Answer 120

two branches at end of the trachea, each lead to a lung

Answer 121

a network of smaller branches leading from the bronchi into the lung tissue and ultimately to air sacs

Answer 122

the functional respiratory units in the lung where gases (O2 and CO2) are exchanged

Answer 123

oxygen from inhaled air diffuses into the bloodstream from alveoli, and carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the alveoli to be exhaled

Answer 124

Small particles make it deeper into the lungs, being deposited in the alveoli as well as the trachea and bronchi

Answer 125

severe allergic reaction characterized by the constriction of bronchioles

Answer 126

inflammation of the lining of the bronchiole

Answer 127

condition in which the alveoli deteriorate, causing the lungs to lose their elasticity

Answer 128

condition in which the alveoli become filled with fluid, preventing the exchange of gases

Answer 129

irregular and uncontrolled growth of tumors in the lung tissue

Answer 130

specialized immune cells in the lungs that surround foreign particles in the lungs and attempt to dissolve them; attempt to clear deposited small particles

Answer 131

1. Mucociliary system (escalator) 2. Alveolar macrophages

Answer 132

defense mechanism of the respiratory system where cilia lining the airways move mucus, along with trapped particles and pathogens, upward toward the throat to be swallowed or expelled; attempts to clear deposited small particles

Answer 133

It doesn't burn, it's like an eternal flame; also has very thin fibers that can be easily woven

Answer 134

It has no warning properties: no foul smell, no skin irritation, etc.

Answer 135

thin fibers come from an ore

Answer 136

Asbestos used to be used in a multitude of things, including insulation, tiles, shingles, and even hair dryers

Answer 137

Demolition and construction of buildings led to asbestos pollution throughout many cities

Answer 138

Disease risk = exposure duration x intensity Exposure to asbestos is defined as inhaled dust

Answer 139

the body tries to "cover" asbestos by scarring, leading to scarring of the lungs (AKA asbestosis)

Answer 140

1. Asbestosis 2. Lung cancer 3. Mesothelioma 4. Tumors

Answer 141

Starting in 1968, asbestosis deaths gradually increased

Answer 142

a rare and aggressive cancer primarily caused by asbestos exposure, affecting the thin tissue layer (pleura) lining the lungs

Answer 143

type of non-small cell lung cancer that originates in the mucus-producing glandular cells of the lung; caused by asbestos exposure

Answer 144

Among 17,800 asbestos insulation workers, actual deaths (1008) exceeded expected deaths (268.68)

Answer 145

1. Prisoners of the past - latency period 2. Unstudied problems

Answer 146

35% of family members of asbestos workers had asbestos-related abnormalities; household exposure and neighborhood exposure are both risks

Answer 147

An ore contaminated with asbestiform minerals was processed by 300 U.S. facilities, releasing tons of particulate matter in 1988

Answer 148

mineral cinnabar, HgS, but it sometimes occurs in nature as a free metal

Answer 149

Heavy, silver-gray, metallic element, atomic number 80, relative atomic mass 200.59 Dense, mobile liquid with low melting point AKA "inorganic" and "quicksilver"

Answer 150

Inhalation route gives higher exposure

Answer 151

1. Occurs naturally in soil and atmosphere from volcanic emissions 2. Extracted and used in industry, then enters air or water from pollution 3. Formerly in some medications, causing direct exposure

Answer 152

rubbed on syphilis sores to cure syphilis, but left those treated with nasty side effects

Answer 153

Mercury was found in mummies; possibly because doctors trying to administer mercury as treatment in end-of-life care

Answer 154

Mercury + silver is used in many amalgams (dental fillings). The dose is high in mouth, but low to the body. There is a real scientific controversy in this regard.

Answer 155

Mercury was used in making black felt hats, and the people making the hats were called crazy, likely due to mercury poisoning

Answer 156

1. Gold mining 2. Felt industry - "Mad as a Hatter"

Answer 157

Inorganic: Hg, Quick Silver, elemental Organic: HgCH3, Methylmercury (MeHg)

Answer 158

Methylmercury (organic) is far more toxic than other forms and is well absorbed when ingested

Answer 159

blood and hair

Answer 160

In 1953 in Minamata Bay, there was an outbreak of Polio-like disease among coastal fishing villages. At this same time, there was a startup of acetaldehyde production at a coastal factory using mercuric oxide as a catalyst. Stray cats went crazy after eating fish, and years later in 1968, mercury diagnosed as cause of 2,000 disease victims. Led to coining of "Minamata Disease."

Answer 161

1. Mental retardation 2. Abnormal reflexes, ataxia, involuntary movements 3. Cerebral palsy 4. Developmental delays - some didn't walk until age 7

Answer 162

1. Parasthesia - "pins and needles" 2. Cerebellar atacia, tremors 3. Constriction of visual fields and loss of smell 4. Loss of hearing, dizziness, insomnia 5. Dysarthria - speech disorder 6. Cognitive impairments

Answer 163

1. Inorganic mercury (Hg) is biotransformed to methylmercury (MeHg) by bacteria 2. Bacteria are eaten by mollusks, crustaceans, etc. 3. Methylmercury is poorly eliminated so it concentrates up the food chain and is bioaccumulated by a number of species, including fish. The biggest and oldest predators at the top of the food chain have highest MeHg levels 4. Methylmercury is evenly distributed throughout the fish and is not changed by cooking

Answer 164

1. Mercury compounds can be applied to seed grain as an antifungal agent. Instead of planting it, Iraqis made bread directly from the seed grain. 2. Warning labels were in English (uncomprehendable to them) and the skull and crossbones poison label has no meaning in the Arab world. Red dye was also added as a warning, but Iraqis washed it out thinking it was then safe.

Answer 165

1. Blindness and deafness 2. Cerebral palsy 3. Abnormal reflexes 4. Retarded motor development

Answer 166

1. Decrease in brain size 2. Cell loss 3. Disorganization of cells 4. Cell migration failures

Answer 167

Birth defects may be due to brief exposure during critical periods of fetal development; affected fetuses may spontaneously abort However, relationship between exposure and outcome is difficult to establish

Answer 168

1. Natural degassing of the earth 2. Combustion of fossil fuel 3. Industrial discharges and wastes 4. Incineration and crematories 5. Dental amalgams

Answer 169

Coal fired plants are one of the prominent sources of mercury emissions

Answer 170

1. Sediments of a river are run through sluice boxes with mercury in them. 2. The gold sticks to the mercury and then the mercury-gold goop is cooked over a fire to drive off the mercury, causing the mercury to go to the water and air This is a problem in the Amazon, causing children to have altered vision

Answer 171

50-75% of mercury released in the environment relates to human activities, though there is lots of mercury in the soil from millions of years ago

Answer 172

1. Chippewa Indian spearfishers thought they were poisoning themselves via their fish consumption 2. Indians were randomly sampled and/or volunteered, and blood was drawn to assess methylmercury levels. 3. Participants were also surveyed on fish consumption. 4. Found very low blood mercury levels in Chippewa Indians, but it was still higher than white fishing guides after Chippewa yearly spearfishing Conclusions: Mercury levels in the Chippewa are directly related to fish consumption, but current mercury levels are below the levels with known health effects. No changes to current practices recommended.

Answer 173

1. Study in The Seychelles found no adverse neurologic effects on offspring related to level of mercury exposure 2. Study in the Faroe Islands found that some adverse outcomes correlate with degree of mercury exposure (and PCB exposure) 3. Study in New Zealand found that abnormalities in newborn exams correlated with high maternal mercury levels Therefore, 2 of 3 studies found abnormalities correlated with mercury levels

Answer 174

High: Levels are higher in long-lived predator fish and some fish may have higher levels based on regional environmental pollution Low: - Small fish, mollusks, and crustaceans have low levels unless in polluted waters - Ocean fish usually "cleaner" than lake fish - Fish that are NOT predators - Salmon

Answer 175

In 2000, 41 states have over 2000 fish consumption advisories. In general, pregnant women, nursing mothers, women who intend to have children, and children under 15 should be wary.

Answer 176

Fish are a rich source of protein and omega 3 fatty acids, BUT have to weigh adverse effects of mercury and PCB contaminated fish

Answer 177

- US EPA - 0.1 ug/kg per day - US FDA - 0.5 ug/kg per day According to no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) studies, the consumption limit should actually be 0.025 ug/kg per day

Answer 178

One study found higher mercury in men who had heart attacks vs. controls. Another review of studies links methylmercury to heart attacks

Answer 179

Science studies say no

Answer 180

Infamous, unethical study of 12 children with faked data. NO evidence that MMR vaccine leads to autism, but his false study started the "anti-vaccine" movement

Answer 181

Primary: to prevent human health effects Secondary: to prevent welfare (materials, plants, animals) effects

Answer 182

Implemented the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

Answer 183

Exact same thing as NAAQS; ambient standards established by the U.S. EPA and reviewed every 5 years

Answer 184

1. Particulate matter 2. Ozone 3. NOx 4. SO2 5. CO 6. Lead (Pb)

Answer 185

Coal-fired power plants generate the vast majority of emissions: 95% of SO2 90% of NOx 83% of CO2

Answer 186

Sulfur oxide that is prevalent in fossil fuels; 65% of SO2 emissions in the U.S. are from electric utilities (coal burning)

Answer 187

Coal that has sulfur oxides and carbon dioxide removed to reduce pollution

Answer 188

Clean air is 80% nitrogen, and this nitrogen combines with oxygen to make NO2; NO2 is a major emission of coal-fired power plants

Answer 189

SO2 and NOx from burning coal combine with oxygen multiple times (SO3, NO3), which combines with water vapor to produce sulfuric acid and nitric acid (acid rain) and even ammonium sulfate.

Answer 190

1. Industrial facilities that derive their products from raw materials like metallic ore, coal, and crude oil, or that burn coal to produce process heat 2. Trains, large ships, nonroad diesel equipment

Answer 191

1. Contributes to respiratory illness, particularly in children and the elderly, and aggravates existing heart and lung diseases. Harmful to those with asthma. 2. Contributes to the formation of acid rain, which damages trees, crops, historic buildings, and makes soils, lakes, and streams acidic

Answer 192

Yes, SO2 can be transported over long distances, which is why we have seen acid rain in areas lacking a large number of coal-fired plants or other proponents of acid rain

Answer 193

SO2 + H2O = SO3 + SO4 Sulfur dioxide emissions combine with water vapor in the air

Answer 194

Yes, sulfates (SO3) and nitrates (NO3) can be transported over long distances, which is why we have seen acid rain in areas lacking a large number of coal-fired plants or other proponents of acid rain

Answer 195

E.g., increasing chimney heights thought to disperse pollution, but really just led to international acid rain. Chimneys are some of the tallest human-made structures, accentuating this acid rain issue.

Answer 196

Rain with a pH of at least 5.6. Rain with a pH below this is acid rain

Answer 197

1. Acid rain lowers the pH of lakes, and leaching into soil can harm ecosystems 2. Acid rain has killed off many species living in lakes, leading to “dead lakes.” This is because most species thrive at ~pH = 7, not acidic pH levels

Answer 198

Acid rain has damaged many historical structures and monuments, for sulfur oxide decays building materials, including stone; i.e., by burning coal, we are destroying our heritage

Answer 199

Acid rain is extremely harmful to crops, resulting in a major financial burden and loss of food

Answer 200

SO2 is the one pollutant in this course that doesn’t go deep into the lungs because it is water soluble. Instead, it is absorbed in the upper respiratory tract. This is not to say it has no health effects, as it irritates existing conditions, especially asthma. SO2 in upper tract + particulates in lower tract (alveoli) is a harmful combination

Answer 201

Particulate exposure is one of the most important factors in determining lifespan. A Buffalo study found that higher particulate exposure correlated with higher deaths

Answer 202

Contributes to respiratory illness, particularly in children and the elderly, and aggravates existing heart and lung diseases (long term exposure). People with asthma are particularly affected by peak levels of SO2 (short term exposure).

Answer 203

Sulfate particles are formed from SO2 reacting with other chemicals in the air and are associated with severe respiratory illness, including difficulty breathing and premature death. Particulate exposure is one of the most important factors in determining lifespan.

Answer 204

30 year study investigating the health effects of air pollution across six U.S. cities. It found a significant correlation between fine particulate matter and increased mortality. The study greatly influenced stricter U.S. air quality regulations.

Answer 205

Because of climate change, wildfires have become increasingly prevalent, tainting the air with small particulates

Answer 206

Steadily decreased over time across all industries, including power plants. This is largely due to acid rain programs and the implementation of preventative measures such as the scrubber.

Answer 207

Preventative measure used in coal-fired power plants and other industries to remove SO2 from exhaust gases. It produces pH-neutral calcium sulphate that can be removed from the scrubber.

Answer 208

NAAQS dictated that power plants must clean up their act to reduce sulfur oxides, and this legislation has been successful as a result of preventative measures such as the scrubber. We have experienced major progress with regard to acid rain as a result of acid rain programs. All in all, acid rain has largely been controlled by the Clean Air Act (cap and trade between utilities, lowering total amount that reaches Canada)

Answer 209

Environmental policy tool designed to control and reduce pollution by providing economic incentives; this was implemented by the NAAQS of the Clean Air Act, greatly reducing acid rain by putting a "cap" on number of emitted pollutants and allowing for "trade" with other industries to ensure limits are not exceeded.

Answer 210

1. 1950s-1970: Urban Rural Effect 2. 1980-1995: Particles less than 10 microns led to increased respiratory deaths 3. 1995-today: Particles less than 25 microns and soot lead to further increased deaths including heart disease

Answer 211

1. Particulate matter 2. Asbestos 3. Certain VOCs - benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, vinyl chloride 4. Aliphatic hydrocarbons 5. Radon

Answer 212

Group of organic compounds that consist of multiple aromatic rings and persist in the environment; an example is benzo(a)pyrene

Answer 213

A polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) that is the main carcinogen of cigarettes and is also found in the ambient air from burning fossil fuels and some occupational settings (coke oven in steel industry; specifically top side): Top side of coke oven —> cancer, bottom side —> no cancer Is also emitted by diesel vehicles. Black smoke = bad smoke

Answer 214

In 1776 it was noticed that many were developing scrotum cancer in chimney sweeps. It was confirmed that soot exposure led to scrotum cancer by using rabbit and mouse skin.

Answer 215

Those in urban areas, likely due to emissions from automobiles

Answer 216

They emit: 1. Benzo(a)pyrene 2. Nearly half of all nitrogen oxides 3. 2/3 of all particulate emissions This is largely a diesel problem. Black smoke = highly toxic

Answer 217

Because automobiles (mainly diesel) emit many toxic pollutants, including benzo(a)pyrene, nitrogen oxides, and small particulates

Answer 218

There are higher lung cancer rates in urban environments>suburban environments>rural areas Increasing lung cancer rates with population density. Likely due to fact that U.S. transportation sources emit a large number of pollutants.

Answer 219

A complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets

Answer 220

Yes, panel found that diseases caused by pollution were responsible for 9 million premature deaths, 16% of all global deaths

Answer 221

Ozone in the stratosphere protects human health and the enviornment, but ground level ozone (tropospheric ozone) is a harmful pollutant to human health

Answer 222

The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere; most of the mass of the atmosphere is here, and almost all weather occurs here. Tropospheric ozone is dangerous ozone

Answer 223

Stratospheric ozone, or ozone that is located 10-30 miles above the earth's surface, away from the troposphere. This ozone protects the planet from harmful UV radiation

Answer 224

1. UVA - has longer wavelength and is associated with skin aging 2. UVB - has shorter wavelength and is associated with skin burning

Answer 225

First appeared in the early 1980s above the South Pole; it begins to develop each August, fully developed by October, and is broken up in early December

Answer 226

Unit of measurement for ozone Example: "Average" UV amount is about 300 Dobsons

Answer 227

1. Skin cancer 2. Eye cataracts 3. Reduced immune response 4. Increased skin aging & keratoses

Answer 228

Non-melanoma skin cancers: not normally fatal, but treatment can be costly, painful, and disfiguring Malignant melanoma skin cancer: far less common, but the major cause of death from skin cancer

Answer 229

Solar UVB exposure

Answer 230

The Southeast

Answer 231

Could cause an estimated 300,000 extra non-melanoma skin cancers, 4,500 extra melanoma cancers, and 1.6-1.75 million extra eye cataracts, worldwide, every year

Answer 232

1. UV can damage early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, marine mammals, and other organisms 2. Higher UV reduces production of phytoplankton (primary element in food chains in oceans), reducing fish stocks

Answer 233

UV can alter plant development, plant diseases, how nutrients are distributed, and biogeochemical cycles

Answer 234

1. UV degrades many materials used outdoors, reducing their useful lifetimes (e.g., some plastics, rubber, textiles, wood products) 2. Chemical additives can make materials somewhat resistant to UV, but increased UV reduces product lifetimes, bringing greater costs

Answer 235

Chlorofluorocarbons; the ozone hole is man-made CFCs react with UV to generate free Cl, and it is this free Cl that damages the ozone layer

Answer 236

Cl + F + C They do not directly harm health, but they destroy stratospheric ozone, which is why the ozone hole formed

Answer 237

1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - refrigerants, solvents, medical sterilants, foam 2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) - refrigerants, propellants, foam 3. Other halocarbons - refrigerants, propellants 4. Halons - fire suppression 5. Methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride - chemical processing, solvents 6. Methyl bromide - fumigant, produce and soil sterilant

Answer 238

1987 treaty that enacted many methods to reduce the production and emission of ozone depleting chemicals; it controls 96 ozone-depleting substances, including CFCs and HCFCs

Answer 239

Many ODS are greenhouse gases, with Global Warming Potentials varying from small to large (CFCs large)

Answer 240

The ozone layer remains vulnerable for a long time: - long lifetime of many ODS - cold weather as catalyst for action of Cl and Br - HCFCs still produced - Volcanic eruption could deplete ozone The recovery of the ozone layer depends on full compliance with the Montreal Protocol's restrictions on ODS, if not it would delay, or even prevent, the ozone layer's recovery.

Answer 241

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) + Nitrogen oxides (NOx) + sunlight = ground level ozone VOCs come primarily from cars and industrial sources. NOx comes from automobiles, trucks, buses, and power plants.

Answer 242

During the summer months when the weather conditions to form it normally occur (i.e., lots of sun, which is an "ingredient" for ozone); ground level ozone is low in the winter

Answer 243

1. "Sunburns" the lungs, may cause permanent lung damage; particularly harmful for people with asthma, as inhaling ozone can trigger an asthma attack 2. Most common symptom is pain from taking a deep breath 3. Long term exposure may lead to premature aging of the lungs 4. Causes eye irritation

Answer 244

A primary component of ground level ozone that both forms naturally and comes from gasoline (cars), paint, solvents, pesticides, and lighter fluid

Answer 245

1. Elderly 2. Children 3. Adults who are active outdoors 4. People with respiratory diseases

Answer 246

40% decrease in amount of asthma attacks due to less vehicles on the road; this is hypothesized to be a result of less VOCs and consequently less ground level ozone

Answer 247

Attacks cells and modifies proteins, leading to cell breakdown and collapse; also bleaches and kills leaves

Answer 248

1. Check local air quality forecast - limit physical exertion outdoors in afternoon and early evening 2. On ozone action days... - conserve energy - avoid driving or filling up tank - avoid using lawn mower or other two-stroke powered equipment

Answer 249

Best estimate is 282k to 362k cardiopulmonary mortalities annually

Answer 250

Best estimate is 1.3 to 2.4 million cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortalities annually

Answer 251

Study that found that high ozone levels may be far from the source, meaning ground level ozone can travel far distances

Answer 252

Introduced ozone control strategies similar to the Montreal Protocol; sought to control industrial precursor emissions and automotive precursor emissions. Precursor emissions being VOCs and NOx. Introduced reformulated gasoline as part of these efforts.

Answer 253

Part of "reformulated gasoline" from the 1990 Clean Air Act. It is a suspected carcinogen, leading to reformulated gasoline being phased out. There is debate over whether it actually caused health effects or whether public response was due to hysteria via media.

Answer 254

According to some surveys, it would seem so; however, likely an example of media influencing hysteria. Conclusions were that exposure to reformulated gas fumes is not associated with serious, acute health effects.

Answer 255

Santa Monica and other sites indicated widespread MTBE presence in groundwater wells; EPA recommended decreased MTBE use

Answer 256

Total Suspended Particulate Matter, or the sum of all particles with diameters less than 50 micrometers

Answer 257

Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters less than 10 micrometers; mechanically generated from soil debris, tiling, construction, or road dust

Answer 258

Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 micrometers; fine particles that are combustion generated These are secondary particles.

Answer 259

Particulate matter with diameters less than 50nm; combustion generated, not much else is known about these

Answer 260

Particles directly emitted into the atmosphere from air pollution sources, such as motor vehicles, food cooking, wood burning

Answer 261

Particles that are formed in the atmosphere by gas-phase chemical reactions that form condensable products, such as sulfate, nitrate, or secondary organic compounds

Answer 262

Particles from natural source that is not impacted by human activity, such as sea spray, wind blown dust, forest fires, etc.

Answer 263

Particles resulting from human activity, such as from motor vehicles, wood burning, tiling, etc.

Answer 264

High PM can make it extremely difficult to see (think China)

Answer 265

PM deposits itself on many historical building and structures, often damaging the material. An example is the discoloration of the Taj Mahal.

Answer 266

"Ozone injury" is when plants essentially become bleached. This leads to death of leaves. There are no known controls for ozone injury.

Answer 267

PM is not evenly distributed across the earth, so it forms heating and cooling zones that impact the environment

Answer 268

Clean air attracts international investment; many agencies such as Forbes rank cities on how "toxic" or polluted they are, and these rankings influence investment and location decisions by major firms

Answer 269

1. Local inflammation - can lead to asthma, COPD, fibrosis, or cancer 2. Systemic inflammation - can lead to atherosclerosis, heart attack, or stroke

Answer 270

Stroke; 42% environmental contribution

Answer 271

Unlikely that same components and sources impact all pathways on injury, but oxidative stress is an important pathway for many impacts

Answer 272

Milwaukee was found to be in compliance with US EPA standards for PM2.5 as the result of a decrease in the frequency of 24 hour exceedances

Answer 273

Large number of studies show adverse health effects associated with distance to roadways; roadway emissions come from tailpipe emissions, tire wear, and brake wear

Answer 274

Study found that those with transplanted lungs who live closer to a roadway have a significantly decreased survival rate

Answer 275

Particle concentration and biological activity both much higher; more toxic components w/ lack of government regulations

Answer 276

In China, found that high levels of pollution lead to a significant increase in blood pressure for women over 50; small/no effect for younger women

Answer 277

February 24, 1896 by Antoine Henry Becquerel

Answer 278

Marie Curie... 1. Discovered that if you have a certain amount of uranium, you get a certain amount of ray intensity no matter what you did to the material 2. Discovered there was something going on inside the atom that created the rays and named this effect "radioactivity"

Answer 279

1. Coined the term "radioactivity" by discovering that if you have a certain amount of uranium, you get a certain amount of ray intensity no matter what you did to the material 2. Discovered that the only known elements that were radioactive were uranium and thorium 3. Extracted Polonium for the first time 4. Discovered Radium (most famous discovery) 5. Found that radium gave out heat and light and can damage living flesh

Answer 280

Silver-white in color, used in small amounts as a cancer treatment and in fluorescent paint

Answer 281

1. Nobel Prize in physics in 1903 for her work with X-rays 2. Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1911 for her work with radium

Answer 282

Particulate: 1. Alpha 2. Beta Electromagentic: 1. Gamma 2. X-Ray

Answer 283

Alpha particles are positively charged particles that are made up of two neutrons and two protons bound together (identical to a helium nucleus); they are slow moving and are the least penetrating Beta particles are high speed electrons from the nucleus that are not very penetrating

Answer 284

Type of ionizing radiation that involves the emission of an alpha particle (a helium nucleus)

Answer 285

Type of ionizing radiation that involves the conversion of a neutron to a proton and electron, and subsequent electron ejection I.e., loss of a beta particle

Answer 286

Spontaneous emission of particles/energy from unstable nuclei; discovered by Antoine Henry Becquerel and coined by Marie Curie

Answer 287

Not particles, but a type of radiation that is very similar to light rays; easily penetrate human tissue

Answer 288

Activity; rate of radioactive decay in a given sample of radioactive material Becquerel (Bq) also measures this

Answer 289

Activity; rate of radioactive decay in a given sample of radioactive material Curie (Ci) also measures this

Answer 290

Energy absorbed in material exposed to radiation Gray (Gy) also measures this

Answer 291

Energy absorbed in material exposed to radiation Rad also measures this

Answer 292

Radiation dose in terms of its biological effect Sievert (Sv) also measures this

Answer 293

Radiation dose in terms of its biological effect Rem also measures this

Answer 294

As of now, fusion is science fiction

Answer 295

1. Fuel boils water 2. Steam drives turbine 3. Turbine drives generator 4. Transformer boosts voltage

Answer 296

Essentially a controlled nuclear chain reaction

Answer 297

Harnessed the first self sustaining nuclear chain reaction at a Racquetball court below Stagg Field; this event served as the forerunner of nuclear power/weapons

Answer 298

Graphite control rods act as a moderator and coolant for the reaction

Answer 299

A nuclear reactor that converts Uranium238 ---> Plutonium239

Answer 300

1. Radiation leaks to air and water 2. China Syndrome (meltdown where reactor components melt through the earth) 3. Potential for big explosion w/ lots of radiation release 4. Nuclear fuel reprocessing, waste disposal, and long term storage are issues

Answer 301

Refers to the disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear plants in salt mines

Answer 302

1. Unfissioned, reusable U-235 is separated from the waste 2. K-85 to air, H-3 (tritium) to water

Answer 303

Not really; the frequency of nuclear plant accidents is extremely low, especially relative to other accidents

Answer 304

Initially there was a nuclear power "boom," with many orders for reactors. Following Three Mile, however, many plants decommissioned, cancelling their orders.

Answer 305

About 18% and primarily medical

Answer 306

Radon comprises about half of all exposure sources; man-made is about 18% (primarily medical)

Answer 307

We are exposed to cosmic radiation while flying

Answer 308

Many building materials contain detectable levels of radiation

Answer 309

Coal often contains uranium and thorium

Answer 310

Yes, but radiation levels are low except in Brazil Nuts, which are concerningly radioactive

Answer 311

1. Type and energy of radiation 2. Critical organ effected (Thyroid mainly) 3. Biological half-life

Answer 312

1. Deterministic (nonstochastic) - effect is guaranteed to occur - e.g., Acute Radiation Syndrome 2. Probablistic (stochastic) - may or may not occur; difficult to predict at individual level, but effects clear at population level - e.g., cancer after radiation exposure

Answer 313

Acute Radiation Syndrome

Answer 314

1. Physical effect - ionization 2. Chemical effect 3. Biological effect - cell death, mutation, cancer, germ cell impact, organism death

Answer 315

1. Genetic effects 2. Carcinogenic effects 3. Effects on the developing embryo/fetus

Answer 316

There is a dose-response between amount of radium exposure and number of bone cancer cases

Answer 317

1. Blast - flattens everything 2. Fireball 3. Electromagnetic pulse 4. Radiation

Answer 318

87,000 A-bomb survivors followed...7,800 cancer deaths observed vs. 7,400 expected; therefore, 400 excess cancers

Answer 319

It contained 20% neutrons (vs. 2% in Nagasaki), making its radiation more harmful

Answer 320

An instant spike in leukemia was observed, and other cancers began to increase in prevalence years later

Answer 321

A severe birth defect that was prominent in Hiroshima as a result of radiation from the atomic bomb

Answer 322

Often led to microcephaly, a severe birth defect; there was a 40% risk of being mentally retarded if exposed to radiation in-utero

Answer 323

1. Dose to embryo/fetus 2. Stage of gestation at time of exposure

Answer 324

Moderate doses of radiation can produce catastrophic effects on the developing embryo and fetus, namely microcephaly and mental retardation

Answer 325

32,000 total deaths

Answer 326

Winds carried radioactive cloud from Chernobyl; this is how other countries realized a disaster had occurred

Answer 327

First reports of an increase in thyroid cancer came in 1990, particularly among children

Answer 328

1. Only proven radiobiological effect on health of the population around the plant has been increase in thyroid cancer in those exposed as children 2. One report suggests that the most serious health effect of the accident was psychological, not physical

Answer 329

29 years later, recent findings suggest: 1. An increase of leukemia risk among Chernobyl liquidators 2. An increase in the incidence of pre-menopausal breast cancer 3. Possible low-dose effects on risk of cataracts and cardiovascular diseases

Answer 330

Soldiers that stood away from nuclear blast tests to see the effects...this led to 17,000 cancer cases in the U.S. alone

Answer 331

1977 - Leukemia doubled is exposed soldiers 1978 - Utah children 2x leukemia 1962 - Strontium-90 build up in the food chain, creating radioactive milk

Answer 332

Winds carried radiation to every continental state

Answer 333

Hanford Atomic Facilities in Washington; this was a lab that generated fuel for nuclear reactors and bombs and had many leaks One study found that workers who got cancer had higher film badge doses than control workers

Answer 334

W.C. Rontgen in 1895; the first x-ray image ever taken was of his wife's hand, and she ended up getting bone cancer and dying

Answer 335

Teratogenic risks orders or magnitude larger than carcinogenic risks orders of magnitude larger than hereditary risks

Answer 336

Radiation does not produce new, unique mutations, but simply increases the incidence of the same mutations that occur spontaneously

Answer 337

Children of the survivors of A-bomb attacks have been studied for: 1. Untoward pregnancy outcomes 2. Death of live-born children 3. Sex chromosome abnormalities 4. Electrophoretic variants of blood proteins ...but no statistically significant effects have been observed

Answer 338

1. Growth retardation 2. Embryonic, neonatal, or fetal death 3. Congenital malformations and functional impairment, such as mental retardation

Answer 339

Small particulates and ozone ---> solely because they are the hardest to control

Answer 340

Dr. James J. Schauer

Answer 341

Dr. Henry Anderson

Answer 342

Dr. Do Pico

Answer 343

Dr. Patrick Remington

Answer 344

Following a massive earthquake and subsequent tsunami in March 2011, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan suffered major damage, leading to the meltdown of three of its six reactors. The incident released radioactive materials, making it the most severe nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.

Exam 1 Flashcards

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