Exam 1 Flashcards
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness; what people do in organizational settings and how it affects organizational performance
Organizational Behavior
Inputs –> Processes –> Outcomes
Basic OB Model
Predictor; presumed to influence the dependent variable; expected to account for (or cause) the dependent variable
Independent Variable
Criterion; an outcome or something affected by the independent variable; the variable to be explained
Dependent Variable
A contingency or “it depends on” variable; a variable that causes the relationship between the independent and dependent variables to vary
Ex: relationship between pay and job satisfaction DEPENDS ON one’s perceived career opportunities
Moderators
Consistency of measurement; a test is reliable if it gives the same results when repeated
Ex: test-retest
Reliability
Can we trust the conclusions from the research? Does it measure what it claims to be measuring? What is the strength of the relationship between the study variables? Can we be sure the independent variable caused the effect we observed?
Internal Validity
Are the research conclusions generalizable to other people, situations and time?
Generalizability (External Validity)
More control (internal validity) but less generalizable (external validity)
Lab Studies
More generalizable (external validity) but less control (internal validity)
Field Studies
Measure of the degree to which two variables are related
Correlation
Measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
Ranges from -1 to +1
Sign (+ or -) indicates direction- positive or negative
Absolute value indicates the strength of the relationship
Correlation Coefficient
A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
Job Satisfaction
A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals
Organizational Commitment
Degree to which people identify with their jobs and see performance as important to their self-worth
Job Involvement
Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being
Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
Degree of enthusiasm for one’s job
Employee Engagement
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events
Attitudes
Cognitive, Behavioral, Affective
3 Components of an Attitude
The opinion or belief segment of an attitude
Cognitive Component
The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude
Affective Component
An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something
Behavioral Component
Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance
The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth
Job Involvement
Employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and the autonomy in their work
Psychological Empowerment
Companies are increasingly prioritizing employee happiness to retain and energize staff. Various methods, from surveys to technology like AI and heart-rate monitors, are used to monitor and enhance employee well-being. However, privacy concerns arise as monitoring becomes more extensive. Striking a balance between using technology for well-being and respecting privacy is a challenge faced by companies. The focus on employee happiness is driven by the belief that happy employees are more productive and contribute to a positive corporate culture.
WSJ “Smile- Your boss is tracking your happiness”
The use of annual employee surveys is questioned due to low response rates, vague concepts like “engagement,” and the lack of meaningful action based on results. Surveys often fail to address big issues or are too lengthy, leading to disengagement from employees. The data obtained may not be anonymous, and companies may not act on the results due to factors like cost or lack of internal interest. The article suggests more efficient alternatives, such as analyzing exit interviews, studying benefits enrollment choices, using focus groups, and leveraging existing data from communication platforms. Pulse surveys with a limited number of questions are proposed for more actionable insights. The article concludes by suggesting that employee surveys, over a century old, should be retired in favor of more contemporary tools and approaches.
WSJ Article “It’s time to get rid of employee surveys”
The article challenges the prevalent concept of employee engagement, arguing that it is often misunderstood and misused. The author suggests that engagement is an outcome of organizational performance, not a cause. Drawing on historical research, the article recommends using engagement as a diagnostic tool rather than a goal, comparing it to monitoring blood pressure for health. The importance of distinguishing between engagement and motivation is emphasized, urging managers to focus on motivation, ability, and employee opportunities for performance improvement. The author calls for a critical evaluation of engagement assessments and demands access to individual data for more effective organizational diagnostics.
LI Article “Sorry, workforce engagement isn’t the answer and never was”
Caused by specific event, very brief in duration (seconds or minutes), specific and numerous in nature, usually accompanies by distinct facial expressions, action-oriented in nature
Emotions
Cause is often general and unclear, last longer than emotions (hours or days), more general, generally not indicated by distinct expressions, cognitive in nature
Mood
Broad range of feelings that people experience, can be experienced in the form of emotions or moods
Affect
communication, team building and collaborations, motivation, decision making
What are the functions of emotions?
An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work
Emotional Labor
the individual’s actual emotions
Felt Emotions
required/appropriate emotions
Displayed Emotions
Involves displaying emotions that are not genuinely felt. It is an outward expression of emotions that are expected or required by the job, regardless of the individual’s true emotional state.
Surface Acting
Involves making a conscious effort to align one’s inner feelings with the required emotional display. It goes beyond the surface and aims to genuinely experience the expected emotions.
Deep Acting
suggests employees act emotionally to things that happen to them at work which influences job performance and satisfaction; work events trigger positive or negative emotional reactions to which employees’ personalities and moods predispose them to respond with greater or lesser intensity
Affective Events Theory
perceive emotions in the self and others
understand the meaning of these emotions
regulate/manage one’s emotions
Emotional Intelligence (3 Components)
the way in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
Personality
personality research says change in major traits occurs naturally
What determines the type of personality we have? (nature vs. nurture)
self-report personality inventories- MBTI, CPI, NEO-PI-R, HEXACO
observer ratings- co-worker, manager, recruiter perceptions
projective tests- rorschach (ink blot test)
How is personality measured?
extroversion vs. introversion
sensing vs. intuition
thinking vs. feeling
judging vs. perceiving
MBTI Dimensions
Extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience
Big 5
Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy
Dark Triad
general, poor reliability, only positive characteristics
Weaknesses of MBTI
the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation
strong situations (ex. military) suggest the right or correct behavior and discourage wrong behaviors… personality does not have much of an effect
in weak situations, anything goes and personality is more likely to influence your behavior
Situational Strength Theory
some situations or events “activate” or trigger a trait more than others
using this theory, we can predict which jobs will suit certain personality
Trait Activation Theory
Argues that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values
Person-Organization
A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover
Person-Job
This article challenges the belief that personality is fixed and suggests that personality change is possible with deliberate effort. The key tips include identifying traits to change, starting small and being specific, “faking it until you make it” by emulating desired behaviors, leveraging existing strengths, tracking progress through logs or journals, and maintaining consistency over the long term. The analogy of personality change to losing weight underscores the importance of taking actionable steps and staying committed to the process.
WSJ “You can change your personality? Start small”
The use of pre-hire assessments in the hiring process is on the rise in the United States, with eight of the top 10 private employers implementing such tests. These assessments, which evaluate traits like friendliness and multitasking, are designed to improve hiring accuracy and reduce turnover. The article suggests that, as more companies adopt pre-hire tests, job seekers face higher standards, making it challenging, especially for young adults and the long-term unemployed, to secure employment. The increased use of these assessments is seen as part of a broader shift in hiring practices, contributing to longer job vacancies and a more selective approach by employers.
WSJ “Today’s personality tests raise the bar for job seekers”
Stage 1- selective attention/comprehension
Stage 2- encoding and simplification
Stage 3- storage and retention
Stage 4- retrieval and response
Social Information Processing Model
Factors in the situation
- time
- work setting
- social setting
Factors in the perceiver
- attitudes
- motives
- interests
- experience
- expectations
Factors in the target
- novelty
- motion
- sounds
- size
- background
- proximity
- similarity
Factors that influence perception
General issue- how good are we at accurately processing and storing information
Suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused
Attribution Theory- process and why it may result in faulty decision making
distinctiveness- whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations
consensus- whether other people facing a similar situation respond the same way
consistency- does the person respond the same way across time
Kelley’s Model of Attribution: Consensus, Consistency, & Distinctiveness
fundamental attribution error
self-serving bias
selective perception
Perceptual Biases & Errors
focus on goals
don’t try to create meaning out of random events
look for information that disconfirms your beliefs
use WRAP method
Wider set of options
Reality-test assumptions
Attain some distance
Prepare to be wrong
Implications for managers-
Behavior follows perception, so to influence behavior at work,
assess how people perceive their work, their work context, the
behavior of others, and the organization. Often behaviors we find
puzzling can be explained by understanding the initiating
perceptions
How to reduce the effects of errors and biases
expectations influence behavior and over time expectations become reality
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Declining quality of decisions as individuals experience mental exhaustion from making numerous choices, leading to a potential increase in impulsive or suboptimal decision-making.
Decision fatigue
identify the problem or decision
generating alternatives
evaluating alternatives
selecting the best alternative
implementing the decision
monitoring and evaluating the outcome
Rational/Classic Decision Making Model
Acknowledges the limitations individuals face in decision-making due to time and cognitive constraints. It proposes that, instead of seeking the optimal solution, decision-makers settle for satisfactory choices based on simplified heuristics and adaptability to changing circumstances.
Bounded rationality/satisficing model
Relying on gut feelings, instincts, or implicit knowledge to make judgments and choices, often without a conscious and analytical evaluation of alternatives. It contrasts with more deliberate and systematic decision-making approaches, emphasizing quick and instinctive responses based on experience and intuition.
Intuition Model
self-actualization
esteem
love and belonging
safety needs
physiological needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Divides workplace factors into hygiene (maintenance) and motivator (satisfier) factors. Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction but don’t motivate, while motivators lead to job satisfaction and increased performance. Addressing both is crucial for creating a motivated and satisfied workforce.
Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Need for achievement- drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power- need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation- desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
McClelland’s Theory
Individuals assess the fairness of their outcomes in relation to their inputs and compare this ratio to that of others. Perceived inequity can lead to feelings of discomfort and may prompt individuals to adjust their efforts or perceptions to restore a sense of fairness in a social or work context
Equity Theory
Fair allocation of resources or outcomes in a way that is perceived as equitable among individuals or groups
Distributive Theory
The perceived fairness of decision-making processes, including transparency and participation, influences individuals’ judgments of justice.
The quality of interpersonal treatment and communication during decision-making significantly impacts perceptions of fairness in organizational settings.
Procedural and Interactional Justice Theory
a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
Expectancy Theory
Proposes that setting specific and challenging goals can enhance individual and group performance, leading to increased motivation and improved task accomplishment.
Goal Setting Theory
Suggests that individuals are likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by positive consequences (rewards) and avoid those associated with negative consequences (punishments)
Reinforcement Theory
