Exam 1 Flashcards
(219 cards)
1
Q
Eukaryotes are the cells of which types of organisms?
A
Eukaryotes are the cells of which types of organisms?
2
Q
__________ cells are larger and have membrane-bound organelles and a well-defined nucleus.
A
Eukaryote
3
Q
The eukaryotic cell consists of three general components:
A
The plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the intracellular organelles
4
Q
The ________ is the largest membrane-bound organelle and is found in cells center
A
Nucleus
5
Q
The chief function of the nucleus are:
A
Cell division and control of genetic information
6
Q
_________ is an aqueous solution that fills the space between the nucleus and the plasma membrane
A
Cytoplasm (cytosol)
7
Q
_________ are suspended in the cytoplasm and are enclosed in biologic mmebranes
A
The organelles
8
Q
________ are RNA-protein complexes that provide sites for cellular protein synthesis
A
Ribosomes
9
Q
_________ specializes in synthesis, folding and transport and lipid components of most of the organelles and sensing stress in cells
A
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
10
Q
Stack of small sacs formed by membranes inside the cells cytoplasm
A
Golgi Complex
11
Q
Responsible for processing and packaging proteins into secretory vesicles that migrate to ICF and ECF, including plasma membrane
A
Golgi complex
12
Q
Saclife structures that contain digestive enzymes
A
Lysosome
13
Q
These enzymes are responsible for digesting most cellular substances to their basic form
A
Lysosomes
14
Q
The movement of a solute from an area of a greater concentration area to area of lesser concentration is known as?
A
Diffusion (a type of passive transport)
15
Q
The movement of water solutes through a membrane because of a greater pressure pushing on the other side
A
Filtration
16
Q
The force of water pushing against a cellular membrane
A
Hydrostatic pressure
17
Q
The movement of water accross a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration
A
Osmosis
18
Q
The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose the osmotic movement of water is called
A
The osmotic pressure of solution
19
Q
What type of transport requires expenditure of metabolic energy by the cell’s means of ATP?
A
Active transport
20
Q
Sodium and ________ are found in virtually all cells
A
potassium
21
Q
The largest molecules (macromolecules) and fluids are transported by membrane-bound vesicles through the process of __________(ingestion) and _______(expulsion)
A
Endocytosis and exocytosis
22
Q
In simple diffusion only tiny, NON-CHARGED MOLECULES, are going to be able to go straight through such as:
A
oxygen, carbon dioxide
23
Q
In ___________ diffusion allows, larger charged molecules such as glucose
A
Facilitated Diffusion
24
Q
Goal of osmosis is to
A
Achieve homeostasis with respect to water
25
The basic structure of the plasma membrane is the __________
Lipid bilayer
26
The _______ determines the structure of the membrane
Lipid bilayer
27
Each lipid molecule is polar; or amphipathic: the head is ____________ and the tail is__________
Each lipid molecule is polar; or amphipathic: the head is hydrophillic (water loving) and the tail is hydrophobic (water hating)
28
__________ determine the functions of the membrane
Proteins determine the functions of the membrane
29
_____________ perform most of the plasma membrane's tasks
Proteins perform most of the plasma membrane's tasks
30
____________ act as recognition and binding units for substances moving in and out of the cell pores and transport channels, enzymes that drive pimps or maintain ion concentrations, cell surface markers, cell adhesion molecules, and catalysts of chemical reactions
Proteins act as recognition and binding units for substances moving in and out of the cell pores and transport channels, enzymes that drive pimps or maintain ion concentrations, cell surface markers, cell adhesion molecules, and catalysts of chemical reactions
31
Proteins form cellular receptors that recognize and bind with smaller molecules called ________
Ligands
32
________ is the state of cell balance of the processes of protein synthesis, folding and dehydration (protein homeostasis)
Proteostasis
33
Carbohydrates on the outside of the plasma membrane form a coating that protects the cell from mechanical damage and creates a slimy surface that assists in mobility. T/F?
True
34
Carbohydrates function in _______ to ______ recognition and adhesion
cell to cell
35
A cellular function that occurs in all cell types is
Metabolic absorption
36
Movement is performed by what type of cell
muscle cells
37
All cells can reproduce and have continuous division. T/f?
F. Reproduction, or continuous division is not a function all cells can perform
38
RNA protein complexes, sythensized in nucleuous, sites for cellular protein synthesis
Ribosome
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Cisternae, Synthesis, folding and transport of proteins and lips
Endoplasmic reticilum
40
Helps package proteins and export out of cells
Golgi complex
41
The enzymes of the ________________ , fund in the inner membrane of the mitochondira, gene3rate most of the cell's ATP
respiratory chain (electron-transport chain)
42
Amphipathic (hydrophobic and hydrophilic) O2 and CO2 diffusion, barrier to diffusion of water, Molecular glue
Lipids
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________ perform most of the plasma membrane tasks
Proteins
44
The functions of __________ are receptors, transport channel carriers, enzymes, surface markers, cell adhesion, catalysts
proteins
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The main goal is to minimize protein misfolding and protein aggregation
Protein regualtion/Preteostasis
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Protection, lubrication, recognition, adhesion
Carbohydrates
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Bind with cellular receptors to activate or inhibit the receptor's associates signaling or biochemical pathway
Ligand
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Cell to cell adhesions are formed on plasma membranse, thereby allowing the formations of _________ and ________.
Tissue and organs
49
Cells are held together by three different means. What are they?
1. Extracellular membrane
2. Cell adhesion molecules in the cell's plasma membrane
3. Specialized cell junctions
50
The _______________ is secreted by cells and is a meshwork of fibrous proteins in a gel-like substance
Extracellular matrix (ECM)
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True or false: The Extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a pathway for the diffusion of nutrients, wastes, and other water-soluble substances
T
52
The ____________ helps regulate cell growth, movement and differentiation
ECM (extracellular matrix)
53
The ECM (extracellular matrix) includes three groups of macromolecules: 1 collagen and elastin, 2 adhesive glycoproteins and 3. proteglycans and hyaluronic acid. T/F?
T
54
_______ is a specialized type of ECM that is very thin, tough, and flexible. It is found under the epithelium. of many organs
Basement membrane
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Another name for basil lamina is? Hint: specialized type of ECM
Basement membrane
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Cell junctions are he contact between neighboring cells. Hold cells together, provide chemical communication and cell polarity. T/f?
T
57
Cell junctions can be classified as either __________ or __________
Symmetric or asymmetric
58
In Cell to cell adhesions, symmetrical cell, junctions are tight junctions-barriers, desmosomes, and belt desmosomes (unit cells) and gab junctions (communication). T or F
T
59
This process enables uninjured cells to protect themselves from injured neighbors by shutting down communication to stop the spread of disease
Gating
60
Is the inside of a cell more negatively or positively charged?
Negatively
61
Cells communicate in three main ways:
(1.) They form protein channels (gap junctions) (2.) They display receptors that affect intracellular processes or other cells in direct physical contact (3.) they use receptor proteins inside the target cell
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Paracrine, autocrine, hormonal, neuorhormonal are all primary modes of what?
Intercellular signaling secreted by the cells
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If cells are deprived of appropriate signals, cells undergo a form of cell suicide known as programmed death or _____
apoptosis
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Functions as an energy transferring molecule and is fuel for cell survivial
ATP
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Energy is stored by molecules of:
carbohydrate, lipid, and protein
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Digestion, glycolysis and oxidization, and the citric acid cycle are phases of _______
Catabolism
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Chemical tasks of maintaining essential cellular functions
Metabolism
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Is anabolism energy using or energy releasing?
Energy building, it builds
69
Is catabolism energy using or energy releasing?
Energy releasing, It breaks down
70
Is it good to use lipids or proteins to create ATP?
Yes, but it's not good
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Glucose (carbs) and oxygen are the best way to create ____
ATP
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_______ is the extracellular breakdown of proteins, fats and carbs
Digestion
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___________ is intracellular breakdown of subunits to pyruvate. Breakdown of glycogen into glucose so that we can use them to create ATP
Glycolysis
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Four stages of cell cycle
G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, M=Mitosis
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What are the four stages of mitosis?
Remember P-MAT
1. Prohphase
2. Metpahase (m for middle, chromosomes in middle)
3. Anaphase (A for away. Chromosomes start moving away
4. Telophase - Chromosomes all moved on each side, two new nucleus being formed
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Metaphase
Metpahase (m for middle, chromosomes in middle)
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Anaphase
Anaphase (A for away. Chromosomes start moving away
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Telophase
Telophase - Chromosomes all moved on each side, two new nucleus being formed
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True or false, only mature cells are capable of division?
True
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Maturation of cells occurs during a stage of cellular life known as _________
interphase )growth phase)
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Chemical energy is created through
metabolism
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__________ is a metabolic pathway that breaks molecules down and releases energy
Catabolism
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Cells of one or more types are organized into ___________, and different types of the compose organs
Tissues
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Cells of one or more types are organized into tissues, and different types of tissues compose ________
organs
85
Active transport pushes chemicals against _________
gradient
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The two main processes of making energy are
Glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation
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Splits glucose, produces two ATP and two pyruvate molecules. In cytoplasm. One of the two main processes used to make energy
Glycolysis (anaerobic oxygenation)
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Extracts high energy electrons, and produces water, and carbon dioxide. In mitochondria. One of the two main processes used to make energy
Oxidative phosphorylation
89
Hypoxemia (emia = in blood)
Decrease in oxygen in the blood.
90
Ischemia (emia = in blood)
Reduced supply of blood flow, which mean decreased oxygen and nutrients, arteriosclerosis (narrowing of arteries), thrombosis (clot, complete block)
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Hypoxia
Referring to the tissue (Decreased O2 in air, decrease hemoglobin, heart or respiratory disease)
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Total lack of oxygen caused by obstruction
Anoxia
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Does sodium go in or out of cell? How many?
Sodium out of cell (3)
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Does potassium go in or out of the cell? How many?
Potassium in to cell (2)
95
Cell injury and death caused by restoration of blood flow and oxygen
Ischemia-REPERFUSION injury. Once assembly line broken it doesn't come back together
96
What is the mechanism that causes reperfusion injury?
Oxidative stress, increased intracellular calcium concentration, inflammation, complement activation
97
What causes oxidative stess?
Free radicals . Free radicals are angry and looking for electrons
98
Free radical is electrically uncharged atom or group of atoms with an UNPAIRED electron that cause damage to what?
1. Lipid peroxidation
2. Protein alteration
3. DNA damage
4. Mitochondrial effects - unable to produce ATP
99
Cellular injury can be as a result of chemical or toxic injury known as?
Xenobiotics (toxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic)
- Carbon tetrachloride
- Lead
- Carbon monoxide
-ETOH
- Mercury
- Drugs
-OTC drugs (leading cause of death in children is medications)
100
Strangulation
Hanging, ligature, manual strangulation (You met a stranger and he choked you or hung you)
101
Suffocation
Choking asphyxiation
102
Biochemical events result in characterize cell injury death including:
1. ATP depletion -> Mitochondrial damage
2. Oxygen and radical oxygen species start to build up
3. An increase in calcium inside the cell and loss of calcium steady state
4. Mitochondrial damage causing loss of membrane potential and cell death
5. Membrane damage
6. Protein folding defects
103
The lack of sufficient oxygen in cells is the most common cause of cellular injury.
Hypoxia
104
The most common cause of hypoxia is
Ischemia (reduced supply of blood)
105
A reduced supply of blood
ischemia
106
Restoration of oxygen in ischemic states can result in additional injury
Reperfusion injury
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________ have an unpaired electron making the molecule unstable. To seek stability they may form chemical bonds with proteins, lipids, and carbs inside the nucleic acids (DNA) -> causing injury
Free Radical
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The damage effects if free radicals is termed
Oxidative stress
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The following describes what type of stress.
1. Peroxidation of lipids
2. Alteration of ion pumps and transport mechanisms
3. Fragmentation of DNA
4. Damage to mitochondria, releasing calcium into cytosol
Oxidative stress
110
The worlds largest single most environmental health risk is
air pollution
111
True or false. ETOH contributes to cell injury by altering nutritional status, causing the metabolism of acetaldehyde
True
112
Most common cause of injuries blunt force injury are
MVA and falls
113
Injuries by sharp force are results of cutting or piercing. T/F?
True
114
Injuries caused by mechanisms that prevent oxygen from entering the body and reaching the cell
Asphyxial injuriesA
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Asphyxial injuries can be broken down into what 4 categories?
1. Suffocation
2. Strangulation
3. Chemical asphyxiation
4. Drowning
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Activation of inflammation and immunity that follow cell injury or infection produces powerful biochemical reactions and proteins capable of damaging normal cells.
True
117
How do genetic disorders result in ceullar injury?
By altering the nucleus and the plasma membrane (The structure, shape, receptors and transport mechanisms)
118
What substances can be generated during inflammatory response as a result of cell injury?
1. Phagocytes
2. Biochemical substances (Histamines, antibodies, lymphokines, complement syswtmes, proteases)
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_________ is caused by a decrease in oxygen in the environment, decreased hemoglobin, decreased RBC, or cardiovascular collapse.
Hypoxia
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True or false: Metabolic derangements can trigger cellular injury, especially cellular accumulations.
True
121
Intracellular accumulation of substances is called
Infiltration
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Infiltration includes:
1. Excess accumulation of normal substances like lipids, water, proteins, carbs
2. Abnormal substances that can get in either endogenous (in the body from abnormal metabolism) or exogenous (outside the body like a virus)
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Endogenous
Produces within the body such as from abnormal metabolism
124
Exogenous
Derived from outside the body like a virus
125
Protein accumulations injure cells by "crowding" the organelles and producing potentially harmful metabolites . T/F?
True
126
A type of cell death that occurs secondary to cellular swelling with water
Oncosis
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This is a result of a failure of the transport mechanisms to regulate water flow into and out of the cell
Oncosis (type of cell death that occurs with swelling of water)
128
Certain metabolic disorders result in abnormal inTRAcellular accumulations of carbohydrates and lipids. T/F?
True. Primarily in the spleen, liver and central nervous system
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The storage of glucose
Glycogen
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An accumulation of glycogen in the cell can have detrimental effects on __________ and _________
growth and development.
131
Pigment accumulations can be both endogenous and exogenous.
True. Endogenous (melanin & blood proteins) and Exogenous (coal dust or other mineral dust)
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The accumulation of calcium salts in injured or dead cells. Sign of patholic change
Dystrophic calcification
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Occurs in uninjured cells secondary to hypercalcemia
Metastatic calcification
134
Normal Calcium levels
8.5 - 10.2mg/dl
135
Calcification or accumulation of calcium is previously damaged tissues
Dystrophic
136
Are calcium levels WNL or not when dystropic (accumulation of calcium salts in injured or dead cell)?
Normal 8.5-10.2
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What diseases are associated with dystrophic or calcium accumulation:
1. Ascelorisis
2. TB
3. Fat necrosis
4. liquefactive necrosis
5. pancreatitis
138
This type of calcification occurs in uninjured cells as a results of an increase in calcium (10.2 or more)
Metastatic
139
Are calcium levels normal, elevated or decreased with metastic (increase in calcium to uninjured cells)
elevated (normal 8.5-10.2)
140
Metastatic calcification happens where?
1. Interstitial areas
2. Kidney, lung, gastric mucosa
141
Systemic manifestations of cellular injury initiate what?
Inflammation
142
Signs and symptoms of infalmmation:
1. Increased HR
2. Pain
3. Fever
4. Leukocytosis
5. Serum elevations of plasma enzymes
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What is atrophy (In cell adaption)?
Composition shrinkage and decrease in cell size
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What causes atrophy? (5 things)
1. Decrease in use
2. Decrease in blood supply
3. Decrease in nutrition (starvation)
4. Change in hormones
5. Lose innervate
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Cells form accumulations and release lysosomes that start eating everything. Too many lysosomes create what product?
Lipofusion (build up of yellow crap in cell)
146
Spotty liver spots on hand are as a result of build up of
lipofusion
147
Is atrophy the same as hypertonic pressure?
No
148
What is hypertrophy (In cell adaption)?
Increase in cell size
149
What causes hypertrophy (In cell adaption)?
Increased protein synthesis within the cell, OR a decreased protein breakdown
NOT due to increased cell volume
Cells get bigger like body builder and get a trophy!
150
Where can you expect to see hypertrophy? Or what is hypertrophy patahologic in?
The heart, kidneys and others. Heart cells can get too big and it is too hard to pump out blood
IF one kidney has a problem the other will increase in size to help compensate for the other
151
What is hyperplasia (In cell adaption)?
- Increase in cell NUMBER
- Due to the increase cell division
Can be seen in the prostate, callous/blister from using tools all day
152
What is Metaplasia (In cell adaption)?
Replacement of one cell type with another cell type. For example cells may change with a smoker when the have cilia on the cell and then the cells change when the cilia is gone
153
Is Metaplasia reversible?
YES
154
What is dysplasia (In cell adaption)?
Dys = This is a problem
Replace a normal cell with an unknown, really strange looking cell
- Abnormal shape
-Typical with cancer
- New abnormal growth
- Mutating - returning to a stem-like state and replicating oneself into an. unhealthy cell
155
Disease example of atrophy:
Dementia
156
Insufficient hormonal or neural stimulation can also cause atrophy. T/F?
True
156
Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and microfilaments decrease with atrophy. T/F?
True
157
Mechanisms predisposing the cell to atrophy(cell shrinkage) include decreased protein synthesis or increased protein catabolism. T/f?
True
158
Hypertrophy results as an ____________(increase or decreased) size in the affected organ?
Increase
159
Hypertrophy can either be physiologic (normal) or pathologic (adverse). T/F?
True
160
Is physiologic normal or adverse?
Normal
161
Is pathologic normal or adverse?
Adverse
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_________ is an increase in the number of cells caused by an increased rate of mitosis (cell division)
Hyperplasia
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__________ is the revesible replacement of one mature cell type with another less mature cell type
Metaplasia
164
Metaplasia is found in association with what?
1. Tissue damage
2. Repair
3. Regeneration
(It is reversible)
165
________ is an abnormal change in size, shape, and organization, of mature tissue cells
Dysplasia
166
Coagulative Necrosis is common in:
Kidneys, heart, adrenal glands
Protein denaturation
167
_____________ necrosis is triggered by bacterial infections like Staphylococci, streptococci and E Coli
Liquefactive
168
Liquefactive necrosis is common in the:
Liver and brain. Usually isolated by a granuloma
169
Caseous necrosis is a combination of coagulative and liquefactive?
True. (Think TB - looks cheesy)
170
Fatty necrosis is usually found around?
1. Breast
2. Pacreas
3. Other abdominal organs
171
What causes fatty necrosis?
Lipase eating the fat.
(Tissues appear white chalky, opaque spots
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_________ is characterized by a rapid loss of the plasma membrane structure, organelle swelling, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the lack of any hallmark features of apoptosis
Necrosis
172
Cell death is classified as either ________ or ________
Necrosis or apoptosis
173
________ known as regulated or programmed cell death and is characterized by the "dropping off" of cellular fragments
Apoptosis
174
What are the four types of necrosis?
1. Coagulative
2. Liquefactive
3. Caseous
4. Fatty
175
Is gangrenous necrosis a type of cell death?
No.
It refers to large areas of tissue death caused by hypoxia AND anaerobic bacteria
176
What structural signs show irreversible injury related to necrosis progression?
1. Dense clumping and disruption of nuclear genetic material
2. Disruption of plasma and organelle membranes
177
Apoptosis is a distinct type of selective cellular self-destruction that occurs in BOTH normal AND pathologic tissue changes
T
178
Death by ___________ results in the loss of cells and occurs in many pathologic states
1. Severe Cell injury
2. Accumulation of misfolded proteins
3. Infections
4. Obstruction in tissue ducts
Apoptosis
179
Which type of necrosis best describes death of a cell from hypoxia, generally as a result of ischemia in the lower extremeties?
Gangrenous.
180
True or False. Gangrenous necrosis typically occurs in the lower extremities when blood vessels are blocked, and ischemia occurs.
True!
Then hypoxia starts and the bacteria invade
181
________necrosis results from ischemic injury to the neurons and glial cells
Ischemic
182
_________is defined as the "eating of self", is a self-destructive process. Kind of like a recycle factory
Autophagy
183
Autophagy can maintain cellular metabolism under conditions of starvation and can remove damaged organelles under stress conditions?
True
184
Somatic death is defined as
death of the entire organism
185
Postmortem changes are diffuse, predictable, and do not involve an inflammatory response.
True
186
What are the seven stages of death?
1. Pallor mortis
2. Algor mortis (temp)
3. Rigor Mortis
4. Livor mortis
5. Putrefaction (bacteria released)
6. Decomposition
7. Skeletonization
187
Algor ortis
Body cools within 12 hours. It helps determine the time of death. Thermometer checked in the liver.
188
Liver Mortis
Blood is pulled by gravity. (Bluish purple color from deoxified blood)
Within 30mins- 4-5hours
189
Rigor Mortis
Onset 2-4 hours, Complete at 12 hours
Reverses at 24-36 hours
190
_______Dissolution of soft tissues into gases, liquids, and salts.
Putrefaction
191
What causes decomposition in putrefaction?
Autolysis and bacterial activity C. diff)
192
How long to become a skeleton?
3-6 months
193
______ the time-dependent loss of structure and function that proceeds slowly and in such small increments that it appears to be the result of the accumulation of small
aging
194
With aging, lipid, calcium, and plasma proteins are deposited in the ________ walls
vessel
195
Deposits of lipids, calcium, plasma proteins deposited in the vessel walls causes serious basement membrane thickening and alterations in smooth muscle functioning. T/F?
True. This results in arteriosclerosis
196
Total body weight (TBW) is 75%-80% of body weight in pediactrics?
True.
Newborns more susceptible to significant changed in body fluids and DEHYDRATION in newborns
197
The sum of all fluids is in the body weight? Adults at 60%? T/F?
True
Fluids found in intracellular and extraCELLular fluids, aka interstitial, intravascular, Transcellular fluids (GI fluids, pleural fluids, peritoneal fluids and urine)
198
How does water move between the plasma and interstitial fluid by osmosis (pulling of water) and hydrostatic pressure (pushing of water) across the capillary membrane?
True
199
_________ is movement across the capillary wall and is described according to Starling Law
Net filtration.
200
The balance between hydrostatic and osmotic forces is known as
Starling's Law
201
Water moves between the ICF and ECF compartments principally with _________ forces
Osmotic
202
________ is a problem of fluid distribution that results in accumulation of fluid within the interstitial spaces
Edema
203
__________ pressure pushes water out of capillaries (FILTRATION)
Hydrostatic pressure
204
__________ pressure pulls water into capillaries (REABSOPRTION)
Osmotic/Oncotic
205
Edema is related to increased forces favoring fluid filtration (hydrostatic pressure) from the capillaries OR lymphatic channels into the tissue. T/F?
T
206
Which of the following promote EDEMA:
1. Increased in capillary hydrostatic (pushing) pressure
2. Decreased plasma oncotic (pulling) pressure
3. Increased capillary membrane permeability (escaping)
4. Lymphatic channel obstruction
5. All of the above
All of the above
207
What type of tissue binds various tissues and organs together, supporting them in their locations and serving as storage sites for excess nutrients?
Connective tissue
208
_________tissue is composed of long, thin, highly contractile cells or fibers.
Muscle
209
Edema is a problem of fluid distribution that results in accumulation of fluid within the _____________________ spacesT
Interstitial spaces
210
There are integral relationship between the balance of sodium and water levels: Chloride levels are generally proportional to changes in sodium level. Tf?
True
211
Sodium balance is regulated by which hormone?
Aldosterone
212
This hormone increases reabsorption of sodium from the renal filtrate into the blood
Aldosterone
213
_________ and ____________ are enzymes that promote the secretion of aldosterone and thus regulate sodium and water balance.
Renin and angiotensin
214
_______________ peptides are hormones involved in decreasing tubular reabsorption and promote urinary excretion of sodium
Natriuretic
215
Water balance is regulated by the sensation of thirst and by _________________( ), which is secreted in response to a increase in plasma osmolality or a decrease in circulating blood volume
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
216
Alterations in sodium and water balance may be classified as isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic. T/F?
True
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