EXAM 1 Flashcards

Question

What is the sixth step of glycolysis, and which enzyme catalyzes the reaction?

Answer 1

oxidation of GAP to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. This step is catalyzed by **glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase** and involves the reduction of NAD+ to NADH

Answer 2

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is converted into 3-phosphoglycerate. The enzyme **phosphoglycerate kinase** catalyzes this reaction, which generates ATP from ADP.

Answer 3

The eighth step involves the conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate. The enzyme responsible is **phosphoglycerate mutase.**

Answer 4

The ninth step is the dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). The enzyme involved is **enolase**

Answer 5

conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate. This step is catalyzed by **pyruvate kinase** and results in the production of ATP.

Answer 6

**usage** Hexokinase: Gluc. Fruct. or Mannose Glucokinase: Glucose ONLY **location** Hex: typical cell Gluc: Liver **Km** Hex: 0.1 mM Gluc: 10 mM portal vein: 5 mM **capacity** Hex: Low capacity Gluc: High capacity **mechanism** Hex: Direct feedback regulation by G6P Gluc: Diff. regulatory mechanism (after G6P goes to glycogen n fat) **how much?** Hex: v. polite! takes only as much glucose as needed Gluc: Stores excess gluc, but doesn't compete w/ other tissues

Answer 7

C4=C3 C5=C2 C6=C1

Answer 8

Even though it is irreversible (in vivo), it can still go the opposite direction ONLY **in vitro**. So it is the enzyme named for reverse reaction (that doesn't occur in living cells)

Answer 9

reduces pyruvate to lactate using NADH -reversible

Answer 10

✮ Glucose 6 phosphate inhibits Hexo ✬ Fructose 6 phosphate inhibits Gluco

Answer 11

**Activated by:** ❁AMP: Signals low energy status, promoting glycolysis. ❁Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate **Inhibited by:** ❁ATP: Indicates high energy status, slowing down glycolysis. ❁Citrate: Reflects a high level of TCA cycle intermediates, reducing glycolysis. (found in mitochondria!!)

Answer 12

**Activated by:** ✪Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ✪ AMP **Inhibited by:** ✪ATP: Indicates sufficient energy levels. ✪Alanine: A building block for protein synthesis, suggesting that resources should be diverted from glycolysis. ✪ Acetyl-CoA

Answer 13

**Aerobic** Gluc--> 6 CO2 ATP gluc ≈ 38 Max flux: 1 Max Energy Output: 38 **Anaerobic** Gluc--> 2 lactate ATP gluc = 2 Max flux: 100 Max energy Output: 200 ** ≈3 ATP/ Gluc if starting from Glycogen

Answer 14

Muscles (can be anaerobic): Is doing *Glycolysis* ☞Glycogen➙ Gluc (➙G6P) ➙ Pyruvate ➙Lactate Liver (Aerobic): is doing *Gluconeogenesis* ☞ Lactate ➙ Pyruvate➙ Gluc ➙Glycogen (liver then pulls lactic acid levels down)

Answer 15

muscles: ON liver: OFF (don't want to do glycolysis)

Answer 16

slide 53 of lec 2

Answer 17

*BeriBeri *Vitamin B1 *People who eat only white rice and alcoholics

Answer 18

slide 58 of lec 2

Answer 19

NO; bc if we did this, we would have a hangover after we worked out (acetylaldehyde is why we have hangovers) **Vigorous exercise ⥇ Ethanol ** Acetaldehyde is toxic

Answer 20

YES!! (reversible) ➥ can turn ethanol into acetaldehyde ➤ Destroys ethanol made by intestinal bacteria ➤ Exogenous EtOH → **acetaldehyde** → hangover ➤ form of ADH partially determines susceptibility to aerodigestive cancers

Answer 21

disulfiram "Antabuse". This is used to treat alcoholism, as it gives you a massive hangover

Answer 22

*Fomepizole * Ethanol

Answer 23

2'-[¹⁸F] fluoro-2-deoxyglucose → Glucose analog that can be phosphorylated but not further metabolized → ¹⁸F decays by omitting a positron

Answer 24

Fructose + ATP → F**1**P +Pi

Answer 25

1. Alcohol Dehydrogenase (Cytosol) 2. Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (Acetate)

Answer 26

Cancer cells oftern convert glucose☞lactate instead of oxidative phosphorylation even when oxygen is present

Answer 27

reduces pyruvate to lactate using NADH reversible cori cycle

Answer 28

*Pain *Paralysis *Wasting *Heart Failure

Answer 29

✦PFK-2 catalyzes the conversion of F6P to F2,6BP. ✧F2,6BPase catalyzes the conversion of F2,6BP back to F6P.

Answer 30

dehydrogenase reaction

Answer 31

thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)

Answer 32

✦ **insulin** stimulates/ activates HK & GK (indicates high blood glucose levels) ✧ **Glucagon** inhibits HK & GK (indicates low blood glucose levels)

Answer 33

✦ ** insulin** *stimulates* PFK II & *inhibits* F2,6BPase (glycolysis) ✧ **Glucagon** *stimulates* F2,6BPase and *inhibits* PFKII (GNG)

Answer 34

✦ Insulin stimulates (dephosphorylase of PK) ✧ Glucagon inhibits (by phosphorylation of PK)

Answer 35

liver; Fructose + ATP➔ F1P + Pi

Answer 36

lec 2, slide 81

Answer 37

F2-6,BP PFK-2 is responsible for the production of (F2,6BP), which is a potent allosteric activator of PFK-1. F2,6BP enhances the activity of PFK-1, thus stimulating glycolysis, and it inhibits the enzyme F1,6-BPase, which is involved in gluconeogenesis (PFK2 --activates--> F2,6BP--activates--> PFK1 ➥ inhibits F1,6BPase (F1,6BP is a product of it)

Answer 38

Johnny has a deficiency in fructose-1-phosphate aldolase (F1P aldolase), also known as aldolase B.

Answer 39

Fructose is converted into fructose-1-phosphate (F1P), which accumulates due to the lack of F1P aldolase

Answer 40

The accumulation of F1P leads to depletion of Pi, which reduces ATP production and increases AMP levels.

Answer 41

Increased AMP and decreased ATP stimulate glycolysis, leading to increased production of pyruvate and lactate, causing lactic acidosis.

Answer 42

The depletion of Pi blocks glycogen breakdown, leading to low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).

Answer 43

Over time, the accumulation of F1P and associated metabolic disruptions can lead to liver and kidney damage, and in extreme cases, it can be fatal

Answer 44

Johnny feels unwell because of the accumulation of lactate, which leads to lactic acidosis and a drop in blood pH.

Answer 45

Pi depletion limits ATP synthesis and blocks glycogen breakdown (glycogen → G1P), causing energy imbalances and low blood glucose.

Answer 46

Fructose-1-phosphate (F1P) facilitates glucose uptake by activating glucokinase, enhancing glucose's entry into glycolysis.

Answer 47

Pyruvate and lactate are the downstream products rapidly produced due to the bypass of PFK-1.

Answer 48

Insulin activates some glycolytic enzymes, enhancing glucose metabolism, but fructose largely bypasses these regulatory effects due to its detour around PFK-1.

Answer 49

Fructose metabolism increases pyruvate production, which is converted to acetyl-CoA. Excess acetyl-CoA is diverted to fatty acid synthesis, contributing to fat buildup.

Answer 50

Lec 2, slide 89

Answer 51

*Galactokinase deficiency * buildup Gal→ galactinol→ cataracts

Answer 52

❆ Gal-1-P→ toxic byproducts ❆ cataracts, liver damage, mental retardation ❆ can be fatal even on low gal diet

Answer 53

✭ Gal-1-P & UDG Gal → toxic byproducts ✭ cataracts, liver damage, mental retardation ✭ less severe with low gal diet

Answer 54

lec 2, slide 92 *Mannose, which differs from glucose in stereochemistry at carbon 2, is converted to mannose-6-P by hexokinase and then to F6P by an isomerase

Answer 55

*Glycerol is produced in substantial amounts during degradation ➥ **Glycerol kinase (*liver*)** * Glycerol + ATP → Glycerol-3P + ADP – Irreversible ➥ **Glycerol-3P DH** * Glycerol-3P + NAD+ → DHAP + NADH

Answer 56

Lec 2, slide 95

Answer 57

FALSE; it makes 2 NAD**P**H G6P→ 5C sugar-P

Answer 58

3C-7C sugars; NOT 2

Answer 59

irreversible (only operates when cell needs to make NADPH); reversible

Answer 60

NADH: * mainly in oxidized form (NAD+) * removes 2 e- during “fuel” metabolism NADPH: * mainly in reduced form (NADPH instead of NADP+) * adds 2e- during biosynthesis & detox of free radicals

Answer 61

**irreversible; NAD**P**H *ring form of aldehyde⇨ ring form of carboxylic acid=lactone

Answer 62

FALSE; fructose is primarily metabolized on the liver, and rapid or excessive fructose infusion can overwhelm the liver's metabolic capacity.

Answer 63

FALSE; it occurs both enzymatically and non enzimatically

Answer 64

TRUE! 2 carbon metabolism is different

Answer 65

C#2 of xylulose has =O and -OH of C#3 is "flipped to the other side" just like in fructose

Answer 66

* Inactivates peroxides etc. * Reduces free radical damage

Answer 67

NADPH ✧Inactive G6P DH: * ↑↑ peroxides * Lipid and protein damage * RBC lysis etc. * Embryo death

Answer 68

G6PD deficiency increases sensitivity to free radicals, especially from sources like fava beans and antimalarial drugs (such as primaquine), which lead to increased peroxide levels.

Answer 69

Increased peroxide levels can lead to red blood cell lysis, resulting in anemia.

Answer 70

No, the anemia is transient; the body eventually produces new red blood cells with higher G6PD levels.

Answer 71

G6PD deficiency is most common in regions where malaria is endemic, such as the Middle East and Africa. The deficiency offers partial protection against malaria, which provides a selective advantage in these areas.

Answer 72

PFK**2** in liver ➥ after high carb meal Pentose P pathway backs up ↑Xyl5P ↑F2,6BP ↑glycolysis ↑ Acetyl-CoA ↑FAT synthesis

Answer 73

Cancer cells require large amounts of NADPH to fuel their anabolic processes, neutralize oxidative stress, synthesize essential biomolecules, and maintain rapid proliferation. NADPH supports both biosynthetic needs and antioxidant defense mechanisms, enabling cancer cells to thrive under conditions that would normally be harmful to regular cells

Answer 74

p53 increases levels of TIGAR (an enzyme that acts as an F2,6BPase), reducing glycolysis.

Answer 75

Answer: TIGAR reduces the level of F2,6BP, which decreases glycolysis, thus inhibiting the Warburg effect.

Answer 76

Glycogen stores and gluconeogenesis are essential because humans use approximately **160 grams of glucose per day**, with the brain consuming **75%**. Glycogen provides a reservoir of glucose, and gluconeogenesis in the liver and kidneys ensures glucose availability during fasting or low-carb diets.

Answer 77

The body fluids contain about 20 grams of glucose, while glycogen stores can provide 180-200 grams.

Answer 78

The liver stores glycogen to maintain stable blood glucose levels (~5mM). During fasting or exercise, glycogen is broken down to provide glucose for the brain and other organs.

Answer 79

Fatty acids, but you get little if any glucose Protein→ amino acids → pyruvate et. al → glucose lactic acid → glucose

Answer 80

Muscles break down their glycogen stores (1-2% glycogen) to quickly mobilize glucose for energy during fight or flight responses or strenuous exercise

Answer 81

**Liver**: up to 10% glycogen ❁ maintain ≈5 mM blood glucose ∼ brain normally uses only glucose (<2mM → pass out) ❁Liver has ≈ 16-hour supply of glucose ∼Supplement with gluconeogenesis * Amino acids → glucose * Fatty acids → little if any glucose

Answer 82

astrocytes

Answer 83

Glycogen in the brain is rapidly mobilized in oxygen-limited conditions, such as during hypoxia, and it is often not detected because of its rapid use

Answer 84

Glycogen in astrocytes helps the brain cope with hypoxia and is also involved in processes like learning and memory.

Answer 85

Glycogen levels near neurons decrease while awake and increase during sleep. But during the day when you're eating, glycogen levels rise in liver, whilr go down at night, bc you're releasing glucose

Answer 86

Even in small amounts, brain glycogen is important because it provides rapid energy under stress conditions (e.g., hypoxia) and supports cognitive functions like learning and memory.

Answer 87

▶︎has ONE reducing end ▶︎MULTIPLE non reducing ends branched ▶︎12 concentric shel

Answer 88

Glycogen phosphorylase is responsible for breaking down glycogen, and it produces glucose-1-phosphate (G1P).

Answer 89

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxal phosphate) for its activity.

Answer 90

Glycogen phosphorylase removes one glucose unit at a time from the **non-reducing** end of glycogen, provided it is at least 5 units away from a branch point.

Answer 91

Using inorganic phosphate (Pi) for cleavage saves ATP because it directly produces G1P instead of requiring an additional phosphorylation step.

Answer 92

Water is excluded from the active site to prevent hydrolysis of the glycogen chain, ensuring that glucose is released as G1P instead of free glucose.

Answer 93

Glycogen phosphorylase is regulated through allosteric regulation and covalent modification. Allosteric effectors like G6P and AMP shift its equilibrium between the T (inactive) and R (active) states. Hormones also regulate it via phosphorylation.

Answer 94

The debranching enzyme transfers all but the last glucose unit from a branch to a nearby non-reducing end. It also cleaves the α-1,6 bond of the remaining glucose, releasing it as free glucose.

Answer 95

debranching:

Answer 96

Approximately 90% of the glucose released from glycogen is in the form of G1P, while about 10% is released as free glucose from branch points

Answer 97

Glycogen phosphorylase cannot remove glucose units that are closer than 5 units from a branch because its structure restricts access to glucose residues near the branch point.

Answer 98

no!, bc it's not down at the bottom of the hole to be protected

Answer 99

✷ G1P⇒G6P ✷ REVERSIBLE ✷ Phosphoglucomutase catalyzes the reversible conversion between glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) and glucose-6-phosphate (G6P). ✷During glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown), G1P (produced from glycogen by glycogen phosphorylase) is converted into G6P, which can then enter glycolysis for energy production or be dephosphorylated to free glucose in the liver. During glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis), G6P is converted into G1P, which is then activated to UDP-glucose for incorporation into glycogen.

Answer 100

❁Glycogen Phosphorylase initiates glycogen breakdown by cleaving α-1,4 glycosidic bonds at the non-reducing ends of glycogen, releasing glucose-1-phosphate (G1P). It continues this process until it reaches a point 4 glucose residues away from a branch point (α-1,6 linkage). ❁At this point, glycogen phosphorylase cannot proceed further, and the debranching enzyme takes over. The debranching enzyme has two activities: ☞Transferase Activity: It transfers a block of 3 glucose residues from the branch to a nearby non-reducing end, forming a new α-1,4 linkage. ☞Glucosidase Activity: It then cleaves the remaining single glucose unit attached by the α-1,6 bond, releasing it as free glucose.

Answer 101

✴︎ liver ONLY ✴︎ G6P ➔ Gluc + Pi ✴︎ irreversible ✴︎ high Km ✴︎ allows excess glucose from glycogen breakdown or gluconeogenesis to enter the blood stream (for brain etc)

Answer 102

In **Von Gierke’s disease**, individuals can store glycogen but cannot release glucose into the bloodstream. This leads to hypoglycemia (low blood glucose), requiring frequent feeding or continuous feeding via IV or gastric tube

Answer 103

✷ **Hers' disease** ☞ Difficult in mobilizing liver glycogen ∼Hypoglycemia solution: ☞ frequent feeding ☞surgical transposition of portal vein

Answer 104

In **McArdle’s disease**, individuals have difficulty mobilizing muscle glycogen, leading to painful cramps during strenuous exercise.

Answer 105

✴︎**Cori's disease** ✴︎ Can only mobilize glucose from ends of outer layer of glycogen ( can mobilize part of it but not all of it) → frequent feeding → high protein diet

Answer 106

✴︎glycogen phosphorylase, which breaks down glycogen, and ✴︎glycogen synthase, which synthesizes glycogen. These enzymes are regulated by allosteric factors and covalent modification.

Answer 107

The enzyme is fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (F1,6BPase), which is allosterically regulated by AMP and fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP).

Answer 108

UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase converts glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) and UTP into UDP-glucose (UDP-G) and pyrophosphate (PPi)

Answer 109

The reaction is made irreversible by the hydrolysis of PPi to 2 Pi by the enzyme inorganic pyrophosphatase, which provides additional energy to drive the reaction forward.

Answer 110

Four phosphate groups are involved (three from UTP and one from G1P).

Answer 111

No, ATP is not directly required in this step; instead, UTP is used to form UDP-glucose.

Answer 112

Glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose units from glycogen, and the debranching enzyme helps break down the branch points

Answer 113

Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) into glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), which can enter glycolysis or other metabolic pathways.

Answer 114

The hydrolysis of PPi to 2 Pi by inorganic pyrophosphatase ensures that the synthesis of UDP-glucose is irreversible, making the glycogen synthesis pathway energetically favorable.

Answer 115

The formation of UDP-glucose involves a **high-energy phosphoester bond** between the **UDP (uridine diphosphate)** and **glucose**. This bond is considered high-energy because when it is cleaved, it releases enough energy to drive the addition of glucose to the growing glycogen chain. The energy released from breaking this bond makes the transfer of glucose by glycogen synthase to the glycogen molecule thermodynamically favorable, allowing glycogen synthesis to proceed.

Answer 116

irreversible; nonreducing (C#4)

Answer 117

Glycogenin. ➥ Glycogenin is a self-glucosylating protein that serves as the core primer for glycogen synthesis. It has an attached tyrosine residue that catalyzes the attachment of the first glucose molecule from UDP-glucose to itself

Answer 118

✧little if any glycogen in liver ➥ ↑↑↑ blood sugar after eating ✧ low blood sugar at other times, usually early death

Answer 119

**Anderson's disease** ➥ normal amount of glycogen ➥ long unbranched chains ‣ low availability (less nonreducing ends) ‣ low solubility ‣autoimmune attack ‣ few survive past age 4

Answer 120

**Glycogen synthase** ➥ ➕ G6P **Glycogen phosphorylase** ➥➕ AMP ➥➖ ATP ➥➖ G6P ➥➖ Gluc

Answer 121

excess sugar and energy: ↑ G6P, ↑ATP, ↓ AMP → make GLYCOGEN low sugar & high energy demand: ↓ G6P, ↓ATP, ↑AMP → break glycogen down

Answer 122

Epinephrine increases cAMP levels, activating glycogen phosphorylase to mobilize glycogen and release glucose for energy during the "fight or flight" response.

Answer 123

Glucagon is released during low blood sugar levels, increasing cAMP in the liver, which activates glycogen phosphorylase to break down glycogen and release glucose into the bloodstream, especially to supply the brain

Answer 124

Insulin is released during **high blood sugar levels** and works by **decreasing cAMP levels**, which promotes the activation of **glycogen synthase** to store glucose as glycogen and inhibit glycogen breakdown.

Answer 125

Increased cAMP leads to the activation of protein kinase A (PKA), which activates glycogen phosphorylase and stimulates glycogen breakdown.

Answer 126

Epinephrine and **glucagon** increase cAMP,(in liver) leading to glycogen breakdown (mobilization), while the pancreas secretes **insulin**, which decreases cAMP, promoting glycogen synthesis storage ****IN LIVER!!!****

Answer 127

lec 2, slide 37

Answer 128

**PFK1** *F1,6BPase:* ➖ AMP ➕ ATP ➕ citrate ➖ F2,6P *PFK1* ➕ AMP ➖ ATP ➖ citrate ➕ F2,6P

Answer 129

**Glucose → Glucose-6-phosphate** *Glycolysisis*: Hexokinase/Glucokinase: *GLuconeogenesis*: Glucose-6-phosphatase **Fructose-6-phosphate → Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate** *Glycolysis*: (PFK-1) *Gluconeogenesis*:Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase **Phosphoenolpyruvate → Pyruvate** *Glycolysis*: Pyruvate kinase *Gluconeogenesis*:Pyruvate carboxylase & PEPCK

Answer 130

The mitochondria

Answer 131

✴︎Pyruvate carboxylase converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate (OAA) in the mitochondria, ✴︎This enzyme is activated by acetyl-CoA. ✴︎ Irreversible ✴︎ Requires biotin

Answer 132

biotin; B7; mobile CO2 carrier ➥Pyruvate carboxylase uses ATP to load CO2 onto biotin and then delivers it to pyruvate.

Answer 133

phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK)

Answer 134

FALSE!; PEPCK uses GTP (guanosine triphosphate) rather than ATP to convert oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate.

Answer 135

The conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate (OAA) occurs in the mitochondria. The majority of gluconeogenesis occurs in the cytoplasm, where OAA is eventually converted to glucose.

Answer 136

The problem is that OAA cannot directly cross the mitochondrial membrane to reach the cytoplasm where gluconeogenesis continues ➥ The cell converts OAA to malate or aspartate within the mitochondria. These molecules can cross the mitochondrial membrane, and once in the cytoplasm, they are converted back to OAA.

Answer 137

NADH is needed in the cytoplasm for the reduction step of converting 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate during gluconeogenesis.

Answer 138

Most NADH is produced in the mitochondria during processes such as the citric acid cycle and beta-oxidation.

Answer 139

The cell uses the malate shuttle: OAA is converted to malate, which carries the reducing equivalents (NADH) across the mitochondrial membrane. In the cytoplasm, malate is converted back to OAA, regenerating NADH in the process.

Answer 140

low blood glucose ➥ INC. glucagon secretion ➥ INC. cAMP ➥ INC. enzyme phosphorylation ➥ *activation* of FBPase-2 and *inactivation* of PFK2 ➥ Decreased **f2,6P** ➥ *inhibition* of PFK and *activation* of FBPase ➥ INC gluconeogenesis

Answer 141

Pyruvate + CoA + NAD+ → Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH **Irreversible

Answer 142

- TTP (Vitamin B1) - FAD/ FADH ( Vit. B2) - NAD/ NADH ( vit. B3) - Acetyl-CoA (Vit. B5) - Lipoic acid

Answer 143

acetyl CoA

Answer 144

mitochondrial matrix

Answer 145

lipoic acid

Answer 146

lec 4; slide 4

Answer 147

FALSE!!; humans can't make lipoic acid, ie it is a **vitamin**

Answer 148

a-KG succinate oxaloacetate malate fumarate

Answer 149

**Release CO₂?** ★Isocitrate dehydrogenase (converts isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate) ★α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (converts α-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA) **Require FAD, NAD, or lipoic acid and are inhibited by arsenic?** ★α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex requires NAD and lipoic acid and is inhibited by arsenic. ★Succinate dehydrogenase requires FAD but is not directly affected by arsenic. **Produce isocitrate, fumarate, α-ketoglutarate, or oxaloacetate (OAA)?** ★Citrate synthase produces citrate, which converts to isocitrate. ★Aconitase rearranges citrate into isocitrate. ★Isocitrate dehydrogenase converts isocitrate into α-ketoglutarate. ★Succinate dehydrogenase produces fumarate. ★Malate dehydrogenase converts malate to oxaloacetate. **Use Acetyl-CoA as a substrate?** *Citrate synthase* is the enzyme that uses acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate to form citrate. **Use GTP as a substrate?** ★Succinyl-CoA synthetase uses GTP in the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate.

Answer 150

**Irreversible** ✧Citrate Synthase ✧Isocitrate Dehydrogenase ( 1st NADH) ✧α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase ( 2nd NADH) **Irreversible** ✦Aconitase ✦Succinyl-CoA Synthetase (Succinyl-CoA Thiokinase) ✦Succinate Dehydrogenase ✦Fumarase ✦Malate Dehydrogenase

Answer 151

Thioester bonds

Answer 152

**pyruvate DH** ➥ TPP ➥ H-S-CoA ➥ Lipoic acid ➥ NAD+ ➥ FAD

Answer 153

FAD → FADH2 bc FADH2 has less energy than NADH

Answer 154

TRUE; converts fumarate → malate by adding water. (no NADH NADH or FADH2)

Answer 155

➖ NADH ➖ ATP ➕ Ca 2+ (muscle contraction)

Answer 156

high levels of acetyl-CoA

Answer 157

✩**Pyruvate Carboxylase Reaction:** Pyruvate + CO₂ + ATP → Oxaloacetate (OAA) + ADP + Pi ✩**Transamination of Glutamate to α-Ketoglutarate:** Reaction: Glutamate ↔ α-Ketoglutarate + NH3 ✩ **Aspartate Transaminase Reaction:** Aspartate + α-Ketoglutarate ↔ Oxaloacetate + Glutamate ✩**Propionyl-CoA to Succinyl-CoA Conversion:** Propionyl-CoA → Succinyl-CoA ✩**Pyruvate to Malate:** Pyruvate + CO₂ + NAD(P)H → Malate + NAD(P)+ ✩PEP ---PEP carboxylase-->oxaloacetate ✩ pyruvate ---malic enzyme--> L-malate

Answer 158

Plants Bacteria FUNgi **NOT** animals

EXAM 1 Flashcards

(187 cards)