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Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Neurogenesis?

A

The growth and development of nervous tissue

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2
Q

What is Neuron Migration?

A

When neurons move from their original location to a new destination

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3
Q

Explain Synaptogenesis

A

A key part of brain development, essential for proper CNS functioning. It is the formation, of synapses, the point of contact where information is transmitted between neurons.

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4
Q

What is myelination?

A

The process of forming a myelin sheath around axons, which insulates them and increases the speed of signals between neurons.

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5
Q

“Neurons that fire together, wire together”

A

A phrase that describes how repeated experiences strengthen neural connections in the brain. AKA the Hebbian learning rule.

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6
Q

Explain Brain Plasticity

A

The brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to stimuli or injury.

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7
Q

How do dualism and reductionism differ?

A

Dualism: the belief that mind and brain are separate entities.

Reductionism: the belief that complex phenomena can be explained by a single primary principle.

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8
Q

Functional Specialization

A

cognitive functions are separated into different
modules that are processed in different parts of the brain

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9
Q

Localizationism

A

Individual cognitive functions are localized to specific regions of the brain (E.g., Broca’s area in the left prefrontal cortex for speech)

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10
Q

What is the relationship between functional specialization and localizationism?

A

Functional specialization: Focuses on the specific tasks a brain region is optimized to perform, like the visual cortex specializing in processing visual information
eg. The fusiform gyrus is specialized for recognizing faces

Localizationism:
The overarching idea that different cognitive functions reside in distinct brain areas
The ability to recognize faces is localized to the fusiform gyrus area of the brain

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11
Q

What is the goal human connectome project?

A

To acquire and share data about the structural and functional connectivity of the human brain

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12
Q

What is the Human connector project

A

An ambitious effort to build a comprehensive network map (connector) of structural brain connectivity.

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13
Q

Why is neurotransmission considered an electrochemical signal?

A

It involved both electrical changes and chemical communication

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13
Q

What are the three steps of neurotransmission?

A

1) Action potential travels down the axon of the presynaptic neuron.

2) Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the post synaptic neuron

3) Action potential is triggered in the postsynaptic neuron if the signal is strong enough

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14
Q

What are the different types of neurotransmitters?

A

Excitatory
Inhibatory
Modulatory

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15
Q

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A

Increases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing (e.g., Glutamate)

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16
Q

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A

Decreases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing (e.g. GABA)

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17
Q

Modulatory Neurotransmitter

A

Influence the strength or duration of synaptic transmission (E.g., Dopamine, Serotonin)

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18
Q

Terms of Section

A

Sagittal
Coronal
Axial

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19
Q

Sagittal Section

A

Divides the brain into left and right halves (midsagittal divides it equally)

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20
Q

Coronal Section

A

Divides the brain front (anterior) and back (posterior)

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21
Q

Axial Section

A

Horizontal cut. Divides the brain into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts.

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22
Q

Anterior (Rostral)

A

Toward the front

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22
Q

Terms of Reference

A

Anterior (Rostral)
Posterior (Caudal)
Dorsal (Superior)
Ventral (Inferior)

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23
Caudal
AKA Posterior: Toward the back
24
Dorsal
AKA Superior: Toward the top
25
Ventral
AKA Inferior: Toward the bottom
26
What are the three types of "matter" in the brain
Grey White Cerebrospinal Fluid
27
Makeup and Function of CSF
made of: water, sugars, proteins, lipids and electrolytes Protects from physical injury, provides nutrients, and ensures waste removal for the brain.
28
How many ventricles contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid and what are they?
4 Lateral ventricle Third ventricle Fourth ventricle Cerebral aquaduct
29
Explain Grey matter
surface volume where information is processed we can find cell bodies and dendrites here
30
Explain White Matter
The inner connections where messages are relayed. We can find axons and glia here
31
Types of glial cells
Astrocytes Microglia Oligodendrocytes
32
Astrocytes
Provide structural support, regulate blood flow, and maintain the blood brain barrier
33
Microglia
Act as the brain's immune cells, clearing debris and responding to injury
34
Oligodendrocytes
Produces the myelin sheath that insulates axons in the central nervous system, allowing faster signal transmission
35
What does gray matter also contain?
Axon tracts Glial cells Capillary blood vessels Neuropil- a mix of dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and glia
36
What else does white matter contain?
Oligodendrocytes-glial cells which produce myelin Astrocytes
37
How is Grey matter organized
By cytoarchitecture By gyro and sulk
38
Explain grey matter grouping by cytoarchitecture
AKA Brooms area. The study of the cellular composition of the central nervous system. Each grey matter region is categorized by cell type and referred to by a single number.
39
Explain grey matter organization by Gyri and Sulci
Gyri and sulci increase the surface area of the brain and minimizes the brain-body ration
40
Gyri
the raised folds of the cortex
41
Sulci
The buried grooves of the cortex
42
Purpose of Cerebral cortex and its lobes
Responsible for higher cognitive functions like reasoning, memory, and sensory processing 4 Lobes:(front to back top to bottom) Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal
43
Explain the purpose of the Sub-cortex: Limbic system
Important for relating the organism to its environment based on the current needs by integrating information about the present situation and previous experiences Emotions, learning and memory
44
Explain the purpose of the Sub-cortex: The Basal Ganglia
Regulates motor activity releases dopamine learning of rewards skills habits
45
Explain the purpose of the Sub-cortex: The Diencephalon
acts as a central relay station in the brain, primarily responsible for processing and integrating sensory information, regulating autonomic functions like body temperature and hunger, and coordinating hormone release by interacting with the endocrine system
46
The hindbrain
Responsible for breathing and heart rate connected to the cerebellum
47
Hippocampus
Located in the temporal lobe, plays a key role in memory formation and spatial navigation
48
Amygdala
Located in the temporal lobe, involved in emotional processing, especially fear and pleasure
49
Difference between EEG and single-cell recording techniques
EEG (Electroencephalography): A noninvasive technique that measures electrical activity in the brain. Single-cell recording: A technique that measures the activity of a single neuron, which is the basic functional unit of the brain. Single-cell recordings are the most precise way to record activity from a single neuron
50
What is the difference between oscillation-based analysis and event-related potentials (ERP)?
event-related potentials (ERP) focus on identifying specific, time-locked brain responses to a stimulus by averaging across trials, whereas oscillation-based analysis examines the ongoing rhythmic fluctuations in brain activity across different frequency bands (like alpha, beta, theta) within the EEG signal, providing information about the power and phase of these oscillations over time
51
What are the two main Electrophysiological techniques
Single-neuron recordings Electroencephalography (EEG)
52
Why are lesion studies important to neuroscience?
enable researchers to infer which brain areas are relevant for certain tasks, through recognizing deficiencies in performance caused by a lesion in a specific region
53
Types of Lesion Studies
Organic Simulated
54
Organic Lesions
Naturally occurring, such as from strokes, tumors, or trauma.
55
Simulated Lesions
Created using techniques like Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), where researchers temporarily disrupt brain activity to study its effects​
56
What are the differences between organic and simulated brain lesions?
Organic: occur because of permanent damage to brain tissue Simulated: temporary and reversible disruptions to neuron firing by magnetic or electrical stimulation
57
Ways of acquiring organic lesions
Traumatic head injuries Strokes Neurosurgery Tumors Viral infections Neurodegenerative disorders
58
Define the three basic types of Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Single-pulse and paired pulse: brief changes in neuron firing which last several to hundreds of milliseconds (e.g. pulse on motor cortex: cause involuntary movement) Repetitive TMS (rTMS): pulses are delivered in a rapid series for long-lasting effects, even after stimulation
59
What are the structural prenatal changes that occur in development?
Neurogenesis (week 5 of pregnancy) neuron migration folding of cortex
60
What are the structural postnatal changes that occur in development
Increase in brain volume due to growth of synapses, dendrites and axon bundles; the proliferation of glial cells; and the myelination of nerve fibers myelination
61
What does Empiricism tell us about knowledge?
That experience is needed to acquire knowledge Lorenz 1951 Perani & Abutalebi (2005)
62
What does nativism tell us about knowledge?
That some forms of knowledge are innate and do not need experience Harlow (1958) Craig et al, (1998)
63
Why are sensitive periods evidence for empiricism and not nativism?
Sensitive periods are evidence for empiricism rather than nativism because they show that certain skills or knowledge must be acquired through experience within a specific developmental window. During these sensitive periods, the brain is particularly receptive to learning from environmental input, and failure to receive the necessary stimuli during this time can result in incomplete or impaired development.
64
CT (computed Tomography)
CT scans provide more detailed images than x-rays by using ionizing radiation to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body. The purpose of a CT scan is to help diagnose, detect, or plan treatment for a disease or injury.
65
What can CT scan be used for?
Identify masses, tumors, and infections Study blood vessels Guide a doctor during a biopsy Screen for cancer Stage cancer
66
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
noninvasive brain scan that detects changes in blood flow in the brain, which are caused by tiny chemical changes in the blood. These changes are due to activated neurons requiring more oxygen from red blood cells. This is known as the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) contrast technique
67
Where can fMRI be used?
Studying cognitive processes Evaluate the effects of disease or stroke on the brain detect abnormalities in the brain
68
MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
non-invasive brain imaging technique that measures the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain.
69
Where can MEG be used?
Brain mapping: like finding the source of seizures, brain tumors or other lesions. Research MEG can help researchers understand how the brain processes information, such as language, memory, and perception.
70
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
non-invasive medical imaging procedure that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to take pictures of your body's interior.
71
What is MRI used for
To produce detailed images of the inside of the body to help diagnose and treat a variety of conditions useful for imaging soft tissues like muscles and organs that don't show up well on X-rays Brain, heart and spine imaging.
72
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI_
A noninvasive MRI technique that helps with understanding the brain's structure, function, and pathology
73
How does DTI work?
DTI works by measuring the rate at which water molecules diffuse between cells in the brain. Water molecules move faster along axon fibers than they do upright to them, so the orientation of the axons produces new image contrast. DTI produces color-coded images that show the orientation of white matter fibers
74
Quantitative Susceptibility mapping (QSM)
a recently developed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique for quantifying the spatial distribution of magnetic susceptibility within biological tissues
75
How does QSM work?
It uses the frequency shift in the MRI signal to map the magnetic field profile within the tissue
76
What can QSM be used for
Estimate iron levels in the brain Detect hemorrhage Quantify liver iron content
77
What are the 4 structural Imaging Techniques
MRI CT DTI QSM
78
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)
a non-invasive brain imaging technique that measures changes in blood oxygenation to indirectly assess brain activity
79
what is fNIRS used for
Measuring cerebral blood flow Studying autonomic dysfunction like migraine
80
What are the 3 functional imagining techniques
fMRI fNIRS MEG
81
Which are non-invasive imaging procedures?
CT MRI fMRI EEG MEG fNIRS
82

PSYC 108 (4 decks)

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