Exam 1 Flashcards
(172 cards)
1
Q
What is Physiology?
A
The science that seeks to explain the physical and chemical mechanisms that are responsible for the origin, development, and progression of life
2
Q
What is Pathophysiology?
A
The study of disordered body function and the basis for clinical medicine
3
Q
What are the 4 components of the body? (small to big)
A
Differentiated cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
4
Q
What are differentiated cells?
A
The process by which young, immature (unspecialized cells) take on individual characteristics and reach their mature (specialized) form and function
5
Q
The _______ is the basic living unit of the body
A
Cell
6
Q
The human body is made up of _______ trillion cells
A
100
7
Q
_________ are the most numerous cell
A
Red blood cells
8
Q
Three basic charactistics of cells
A
Oxygen with the addition of carbohydrates/fats/proteins = energy
They are a product of chemical reactions released into surrounding fluids
They have the ability to reproduce additional cells of their own kind
9
Q
What is a tissue?
A
Groups of cells with related function
10
Q
What are the 4 types of tissues?
A
Muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial
11
Q
Muscle Tissue
A
Capable of contraction, form muscle system
12
Q
Nervous Tissue
A
Conduct electrical impulses, form the nervous system
13
Q
Connective Tissue
A
Widely spaced cells and large amounts of intercellular matrix; connective tissue, bone, blood, cartilage
14
Q
Epithelial Tissue
A
Cover bodies surfaces and line internal organs, body cavities and passageways
15
Q
What are organs?
A
A group of tissues that work together for the overall function of the organ
16
Q
What is an organ system?
A
A group of organs that work together to perform a specific function
17
Q
What are the eleven organ systems?
A
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
18
Q
All systems work to maintain ____________
A
Homeostasis
19
Q
____-_____% of the adult human system is made of fluid
A
50-70%
20
Q
What are the two types of fluid?
A
Intracellular fluid; extracellular fluid
21
Q
Where is Intercellular fluid?
A
Between one cell and another cell
22
Q
Where is Intracellular Fluid?
A
Within a cell
23
Q
Intracellular fluid is ______ of body fluid
A
2/3
24
Q
Intracellular fluid has what three elements?
A
Potassium, magnesium, and phosphates
25
Where is Extracellular Fluid?
Outside of a cell
26
Extracellular fluid is _____ of body fluid
1/3
27
Extracellular fluid is composed of?
Interstitial fluid, blood plasma, transcellular fluids
Sodium, chloride, bicarbonate
Oxygen, glucose
Fatty acids, amino acids
Carbon dioxide and other waste products
28
What are transcellular fluids?
Cerebral spinal fluid or GI fluids
29
The cell membrane is made of a ____________ bilayer
Phospholipid - meaning only things that are lipid soluble can pass through
30
The Blood Circulatory System
Fluid is either in blood plasma or diffuses across the capillary wall. The fluid and dissolved molecules are continually moving between ECF and compartments and equilibrating
31
Extracellular fluid can also be called _________?
Interstitial fluid
32
What is homeostasis?
Maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment
33
What substances have a small range for homeostasis?
Hydrogen ions (pH)
Electrolytes - K, Na, Cl, Ca, Mg (in ion form)
34
What substances have a larger range for homeostasis?
Body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose levels
35
Most control systems act by __________ feedback
Negative
36
What is negative feedback?
The initiating stimulus triggers a corrective pathway - leading to stability
37
In terms of feedback systems: There is a variable degree of ability to correct the __________, most are not ________ effective in preventing change
Imbalance; 100%
38
What is positive feedback?
The initiating stimulus causes more of the same until that stimulus is resolved or removed - leads to instability
39
What are some examples of positive feedback?
Blood clotting, parturition/childbirth, nerve action potentials
40
Steps to blood clotting
1. Break of tear occurs in blood vessel wall
2. Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals
3. Released chemicals attract more platelets
4. Platelets plug forms
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Steps of feedback in childbirth
1. Oxytocin release
2. Uterine contractions
3. Pushes baby against the cervix
4. Cervical stretch
42
What is feedforward control?
A response made in anticipation of change that has not yet occurred
43
What is an example of feedforward control?
Secretion of salvia in the mouth in anticipation of a meal
44
What is automaticity?
The quality or fact of being performed involuntarily or unconsciously, as a reflex, innate process, or ingrained habit
45
The autonomic nervous system controls the ______ ________ of the body
Visceral functions
46
What are examples of visceral functions?
Arterial pressure, Gi mobility and secretion, urinary bladder emptying, body temperature
47
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
48
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
Prepares the body for physical fight, the fight or flight, it will increase heart rate, blood pressure, reduce blood flow to the skin and digestive tracts
49
What is the Parasympathetic system?
Rest and digest, digestion and waste elimination, heal, grow, and fight infection
50
The different substances that make up the cell are collectively called __________
Protoplasm
51
Protoplasm is made of up 5 basic substances
Water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
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Protoplasm - Water
70-85%, dissolved substances, suspended particulates, and chemical reactions
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Protoplasm - Proteins
10-20%, cytoskeleton, cilia, axons, fibrin, functional enzymes
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Protoplasm - Ions
Potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate
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Protoplasm - Lipds
Hydrophobic phospholipids, cholesterol, form cell membranes, triglycerides, energy storage
56
Protoplasm - Carbohydrates
1-3%, nutrition, energy, dissolved glucose always present in EFC, glycogen
57
Membranes are composed of _______ and _________
Lipids; proteins
58
Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane
Thin, pliable, elastic, 7.5-10nm thick
59
What are the four functions of the plasma membrane?
Physical barrier, selective permeability, electrochemical gradients, communication
60
Plasma Membrane - Physical barrier
A flexible boundary, protects cellular contents and supports cell structure. Separates ICF from ECF
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Plasma Membrane - Selective Permeability
Regulates entry and exit of ions, nutrients, and waste into and out of cell
62
Plasma Membrane - Electrochemical gradients
Create electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane
63
Plasma Membrane - Communication
Receptors recognize and respond to molecular signals
64
What is a lipid bilayer?
Barrier to substances and water soluble substances (ions, glucose, urea). Fat soluble substances (O2, CO2, alcohol) diffuse freely across
65
The main component of a lipid bilayer is _________?
Phospholipids
66
What are sphingolipids?
Nerve cells for signal transmission, adhesion site
67
Lipid Bilayer - Cholesterol
Determines permeability and control the fluidity
68
Membrane proteins - integral
Protrude through both sides of the membrane. Such as channels, carrier proteins, enzymes, receptors for water soluble hormones, receptors for neurotransmitters
69
Membrane proteins - peripheral
Attached to one surface (inner to outer) Often attached to integral proteins, act as enzymes, control the transport across a pore or channel
70
_____________ = membrane carbohydrates
Glycocalyx
71
Most integral proteins are ___________
Glycoproteins
72
Proteoglycans
In mucus and glandular secretions, ground substance in ECM, bone and cartilage, needed for migration and proliferation of cells
73
1/10 of lipids are ___________
Glycolipids
74
What do glyco-protrudes do?
The negative charge repels other negatively charged molecules
May attach one cell to another
Receptors for hormones or neurotransmitters
Immune reactions
75
What are the organelles of the cytoplasm?
Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, cell cytoskeleton, nucleus
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Endoplasmic Reticulum = ________
Production
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Ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesize new proteins
78
Ribosomes on smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesize new lipids
79
Golgi Apparatus = ___________
Packaging
80
The Golgi Apparatus contains what three things?
Lysosomes, peroxisomes, and secretory granules/vesicles
81
Lysosomes (Golgi Apparatus)
Hydrolase enzymes and digest damaged cell structures, food particles, bacteria
82
Peroxisomes (Golgi Apparatus)
Oxidases H2O2 and catalase is good for oxidizing poisons/toxins, catabolize long chain fatty acids
83
Secretory Granules and Vesicles (Golgi Apparatus)
Enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters
84
Mitochondria
The powerhouse of the cell, located where you need energy, self replicating and contain DNA. Performs oxidative phosphorylation
85
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Pyruvate and oxygen make carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
86
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibrillar proteins, formed by ribosomes in RER. Contain filaments and microtubules
87
Cytoskeleton - Filaments
Actin filaments provide elastic support for cell membrane. Actin and myosin contraction of muscles
88
Cytoskeleton - Microtubules
Tubulin is stiff, creating the microtubules. Uses flagellum and cilium for movement. Transports vesicles and debris
89
Nucleus
The control centre of the cell, contains DNA (the genes)
90
Genes control?
What proteins will be produced / control cell reproduction. They reproduce to make 2 identical sets of genes and then the cell splits via mitosis
91
The Nuclear Membrane
Composed of 2 separate bilayer membranes. The outer membrane continues into the endoplasmic reticulum. The space between also continues into endoplasmic reticulum.
92
Nuclear pores with _______ proteins attached to ________, make pores smaller
Large; edges
93
Nucleoli and Ribosomes
Nucleolus has no membrane, it is an accumulation of large amounts of RNA and proteins. Enlarges when cell is making proteins
94
Endocytosis
Many substances can pass through the membrane by diffusion of by active transport. Larger particles are absorbed into the cell by endocytosis
95
What are the two types of endocytosis?
Pinocytosis and phagocytosis
96
Pinocytosis
Occurs in most cells and occurs continually. Proteins bind to a receptor and the entire pit invaginates, pinches off, and breaks away from the membrane - requires energy
97
Phagocytosis
Only occurs in certain cells. Cell membrane receptors attach to a surface ligand. The cell surrounds the particle (mostly larger particles) and zips closed using actin and other contractile fibrils
98
Lysosomes
Attaches to pinocytotic or phagocytic vesicles. Empties hydrolases into the vesicles for killing bacteria, and digestion. Can also rupture, releasing hormones to remove other damaged cells
99
Autolysis
Digestion of an entire severely damaged cell
100
Autophagy
Degrade and recycle old organelles and large proteins
101
Exocytosis
The process of emptying contents of a secretory vesicle outside the cell. Usually requires an influx of calcium
102
Chemotaxis
Movement toward or away from certain chemicals
103
What are the two types of locomotion?
Ameboid movement and ciliary movement
104
Ameboid Movement
A type of cell movement that involves the extension of cytoplasm to create protrusions that pull the cell forward - requires energy
105
Ciliary Movement
Do whiplike movements to create a wave to movement fluid or mucus. Needs ATP, calcium and magnesium. Found in respiratory airways and uterine tubes
106
Purines
Adenine and guanine
107
Pyrimidines
Thymine and cytosine
108
Transcription
DNA to mRNA
109
Translation
RNA to protein
110
Replication
DNA copy to DNA - occurs just prior to mytosis
111
Gene Expression
The process of transcribing and translating the genetic code of the DNA into proteins
112
Most proteins in the body are _________
Enzymes
113
_____ pairs of nucleotides = 1 full turn of the helix
10
114
Nucleotide bases create a code read in ___ base units called _______ which create a code word
3; triplets
115
RNA has _______ instead of Thymine and _______ instead of deoxyribose
uracil; ribose
116
What does RNA Polymerase do?
An enzyme that provides energy to unwind and split the DNA chain and to add new RNA nucleotide to the growing chain
117
What are the six kinds of RNA?
Precursor mRNA
Small nuclear snRNA
Messenger mRNA
Transfer tRNA
Ribosomal rRNA
MicroRNA miRNA
118
Precursor mRNA
Large immature, single strand - gets chopped down
119
Small Nuclear snRNA
Directs splicing of pre-mRNA to form mRNA
120
Messenger mRNA
Carries genetic code from nucleus to cytoplasm
121
Transfer RNA tRNA
Transports activated amino acids to the ribosomes so they can be assembled into proteins
122
Ribosomal rRNA
Joins with ribosomes in forming proteins
123
MicroRNA miRNA
Single stand RNA 21-23 nucleotides regulate gene transcription and translation
124
Gene expression allow us to...?
Adapt to our environment and allows each cell to perform its specialized function
125
Enzyme Inhibition
Usually the first enzyme in a pathway is inactivated by an inhibitor binding to it and changing its 3D shape
126
Enzyme Activation
When needed, those inactivated enzymes can be quickly reactivated. ATP depleted, cAMP builds up, activates glycogen splitting phosphorylates to mobilize glycogen and hence energy
127
Genes determine the ______ ____________ of cells
Growth characteristics
128
If not inhibited, mammalian cells will reproduce as rapidly as they can, doubling in number every __-__ hours
10-30
129
Mitosis
The actual process by which the cell splits into two new cells
130
DNA Replication
The process by which two new complete sets of DNA are formed from an original template
131
Mitosis lasts for only about _____ minutes
30
132
Chromatids
The two new chromosomes are attached to each other at the centromere until mitosis. Called chromatids before they split
133
Each human cell contains ____ chromosomes in _____ pairs
46; 23
134
Spindle
Microtubules connecting Aster to chromatids
135
Mitotic Apparatus
All the microtubules and the two pairs of chromatids
136
Timeline of Mitosis (5 phases)
Prophase, pro-metaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
137
Prophase
Condensation of chromosomes and formation of spindle
138
Pro-Metaphase
Fragmentation of nuclear envelope. Attachment of microtubules from aster to chromatids at centromeres. Pull toward poles
139
Metaphase
Mitotic apparatus - two asters are pushed apart. Chromatids pulled to centre of cell from the equatorial plate of the mitotic spindle
140
Anaphase
Chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart at the centromere. Separating the 46 pairs of chromatids into 46 daughter chromosomes
141
Telophase
Daughter chromosomes pushed completely apart. Mitotic apparatus dissolves, new nuclear membrane forms around each from ER, cell pinches in two
142
Cells grow and reproduce constantly in ?
Bone marrow for blood cells, germinal layers of the skin and epithelium of the gut
143
Telemere
A region of repetitive nucleotide sequencing at the ends of chromatids preventing deterioration of the chromosome. Protective caps
144
Cell Differentiation
Changes in physical and functional properties of cells as they proliferate in the embryo to form different bodily structures and organs
145
Apoptosis
Programmed orderly cell death- eaten by neighbouring phagocytic cells and recycled
146
Antioncogenes
Tumor suppressor genes - when these are not working > cancer
147
Increased Risk facts to Cancer (5)
Ionizing radiation, chemical substances, physical irritants, hereditary mutations, some viruses
148
Diffusion
Random molecular movement of substances molecule by molecule either through intermolecular spaces in the membrane or in combination with a carrier protein. Molecules move down their concentration gradient - does not require energy other than kinetic energy of the molecule
149
Active Transport
Movement of ions or other substances across the membrane in combination with a carrier protein. The carrier protein causes substances to move against an electrochemical gradient. Requires an additional energy source
150
Simple Diffusion
Molecule or ions cross the membrane without any interaction with the carrier proteins in the membranes
151
Facilitated Diffusion
Molecule binds chemically with a transport protein, which shuttles it through the membrane
152
Aquaporins
Specialized pores for water
153
What are the three types of gates?
Voltage gated, ligand gated, mechanical pressure
154
Voltage Gated
Opened or closed in response to a change in electrical potential across the cell membrane
155
Ligand Gated
Chemicals binding to the channel protein cause it to to open or close
156
Mechanical Pressure
Pressure gated
157
Three rules of carrier mediated transport
Stereospecificity, transport maximum, competition
158
GLUT4
Activated by insulin which increases the rate of diffusion of glucose into the cell
159
Factors affecting net rate of diffusion
Concentration difference across the membrane, electrical gradients (opposites attract), higher pressure - increased movement
160
Osmosis
The net diffusion of water
161
Hydrostatic Pressure
Water pushing on water, the weight of water
162
Osmotic Pressure
Concentration difference of water compared to dissolved particles. Assumes the membrane is permeable to water and not to the solute
163
Primary Active Transport uses ____?
ATP
164
Secondary active transport uses?
Energy stored in the form of another ions concentration gradient
165
Sodium potassium pump
Pumps both molecules against their concentration gradient, slight negative charge inside the cell, 3 sodium out, 2 potassium in. ATPase activity on the inside
166
Calcium Pump
Pumps calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells and into the mitochondria
167
Hydrogen Ions (Transport)
Used in the stomach for digestion and excreted from the kidney as waste. The more H+ the pump is pushing against, the more ATP required
168
Types of Secondary Active Transport
Synport and Anti-port
169
Synport
A large concentration of sodium outside of the cell creates a form of stored energy. The energy of sodium entering the cell pulls in other molecules along with it
170
Anti-port
High concentration of sodium outside the cell. When sodium enters the cell a substance inside the cell is transported out of the cell.
171
Synport Examples
Sodium-glucose co-transport or renal and intestinal epithelial cells, amino acid co-transport, chloride, iodine, iron, urate
172
Examples of Anti-port
sodium-calcium counter-transporter, sodiumhydrogen counter-transporter
