exam 1 Flashcards
(254 cards)
1
Q
What are microorganisms?
A
Microorganisms can be harmful or beneficial. They are microscopic and require a microscope to observe.
2
Q
Who invented the microscope?
A
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1685)
3
Q
What did Anton van Leeuwenhoek observe in his microscope?
A
Microorganisms in tooth plaque, pond water, and feces. (called them animalcules)
4
Q
What is a compound microscope?
A
Uses at least two lenses for better magnification.
early versions produced fuzzy imaged at high magnifications.
5
Q
Who developed the oil immersion technique?
A
Ernst Abbe (1866)
6
Q
What are early media for growing microorganisms?
A
Liquid (broth/soup) and solid options (potato slices, gelatin).
7
Q
What limitations were found in early media?
A
- Not all microorganisms grew on potato slices
- Gelatin melted in warm temperatures and was consumed by microorganisms.
8
Q
Who suggested agar as a solidifying agent?
A
Frau Hesse (late 1800s)
9
Q
Why was agar a better solidifying agent?
A
Agar doesn’t melt at warm temperatures and revolutionized microbial growth techniques.
10
Q
Who adopted agar for lab use?
A
Robert Koch
11
Q
What is spontaneous generation?
A
The belief that life arose from an unseen energy inspiring myths like Frankenstein and that’s what made it a lie, this is where the idea came from of Frankenstein’s monster, people believed this was real
12
Q
what were common beliefs of spontaneous generation?
A
- Meat turns into maggots if left out.
- Sweat in clothes produces lice and fleas.
13
Q
What did Helmont do?
A
Created a “chemical formula” for spontaneous generation, claiming mice came from a shoebox with rags and weeds.
First person to recognize chemical reactions occur in WHOLE numbers
14
Q
What experiment did Louis Pasteur conduct to disprove spontaneous generation?
A
The gooseneck flask experiment.
15
Q
what was the gooseneck flask experiment?
A
Demonstrated boiled broth stayed clear if contaminants couldn’t enter.
16
Q
What is fermentation?
A
The making of a product using microorganisms, such as yogurt and wine.
17
Q
Who discovered that yeast causes fermentation?
A
Louis Pasteur
18
Q
Why did pasteur develop pasteurization?
A
Sometimes bacteria instead of yeast got into the grape juice and that made it spoiled.
Developed pasteurization to prevent spoilage by heating grape juice to kill bacteria.
19
Q
What was infectious diseases thought to be?
A
Historically thought to be divine punishment.
20
Q
Hippocrates believed in what?
A
Believed disease was natural and could be treated.
21
Q
Joseph Lister introduced what?
A
Introduced antiseptics (carbolic acid) to prevent infections, leading to Listerine’s invention.
Hospitals were very dangerous because if u had a bad injury and took a cloth and put it on the wound u usually got an infection.
22
Q
What did Robert Koch prove about microorganisms?
A
Microorganisms cause disease.
All microorganisms were not the same, each kind had its own characteristics
23
Q
What are Koch’s Postulates?
A
- Microorganisms must be present in all cases of the disease
- It must be isolated for study
- It must reproduce the disease in a host
- It must be re-isolated from the host.
24
Q
what is immunology?
A
study of disease resistance
25
Ancient chinese observed what?
Ancient Chinese observed immunity after recovering from diseases.
If u were healthy go visit the person who has it and get the sickness so u can get it and get over it so u don’t get it again, or if u waited until ur unhealthy or old then u would get the disease and die
26
Who created the first vaccine?
Edward Jenner (1790)
27
What did Edward Jenner use to create the first vaccine?
Cowpox pus.
28
How did Edward Jenner figure out that you can use cowpox pus?
Noted milkmaids with cowpox didn’t get smallpox.
29
Cowpox and smallpox
little girls who milked the cows didn’t get small pox, disease that cows get (cow pox) on their utters and its now lethal and when someone milks the cow their hands get infected so the girl would have sores on their hands and doesn’t kill them, recognized there were similarities if u got cow pox u wont get small pox, took some of puss from cow pox sore and took a boy and pricked his skin with it so he got cow pox and then did it again with some puss from small pox and the boy didn’t get small pox, he started doing the same thing with all of his patients and no one got small pox.
30
What is attenuation in the context of vaccination?
Loss of the ability to cause disease. (weakening germs to prevent harm) if we grow a bad germ in lab because the germ is in a lab then it loses its ability to be bad because it evolves and can't cause harm, so if u inject them with it then u wont get it
31
How was the word vaccine made?
comes from latin, (vacca) latin for cow, named this because Jenner was taking cow pox disease and infecting it with people
32
Who developed the rabies vaccine?
Louis Pasteur (1875)
33
What is chemotherapy?
Treating diseases with chemicals.
34
What did Paracelsus do?
Used mercury to treat syphilis (ineffective due to toxicity).
Would cause the patients teeth and hair to fall out
Proved chemicals could cure disease
35
Who created 'magic bullets' for treating diseases? (specifically syphilis w less toxicity)
Paul Ehrlich (1906)
36
What role did antibiotics have in chemotherapy?
Chemicals that kill another disease
37
Who discovered penicillin?
Alexander Fleming (1940)
38
What was penicillin known as?
the first true antibiotic.
39
What does virology study?
Viruses.
40
Who identified what a virus was?
Beijerinck (1898)
41
What else did Beijernick study?
He studied viruses in tobacco (e.g., Tobacco Mosaic Virus)
Smaller than cells.
42
What did Twort discover?
Discovered bacteriophages
43
What are bacteriophages?
viruses that infect bacteria
44
Microbial genetics was what?
study of disease contributed to modern genetics.
45
What did Griffith discover in pneumonia bacteria?
Transformation.
46
Transformation
found transformation in pneumonia bacteria, Griffith took dead bacteria w this capsule and mixed it with live bacteria that couldn’t make a capsule when he mixed them, the live bacteria can now make a capsule, somehow the live bacteria could make a capsule now
47
Who linked transformation to DNA?
Avery and Hotchkiss.
48
Avery and Hotchkiss also discovered what?
found out that what caused this change was DNA, at this time no one in science knew DNA was a hereditary, the idea that genes and creatures are made of DNA is a recent discovery, two people that proved DNA was where the genes were, bc of that experiment later after WWII
49
Who discovered DNA's double helix structure?
Watson, Crick, and Wilkins (1953)
50
What is genetic engineering?
artificial transfer of one organism to another. Means humans have control
51
What is special about carbon?
it has 4 binding sites that allow diverse bonding and structural arrangements (isomers)
52
What are isomers?
Molecules with identical molecular formulas but different structures (D and L isomers).
53
How do enzymes work with isomers?
Enzymes typically function with specific isomers.
54
What is special about hydrogen?
Essential for hydrogen bonding, significantly influencing molecule shape and structure.
Commonly involved in biochemical reactions.
55
What is special about oxygen?
Highly reactive element.
Enhances chemical complexity when added to hydrocarbons.
56
What are hydrocarbons composed of?
Comprised of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
57
What are alcohols composed of?
Contain hydroxyl (-OH) groups. Examples include ethanol and propanol.
58
What are aldehydes composed of?
Feature a carbonyl group bonded to one hydrogen and one R group (e.g., glucose).
59
What are ketones composed of?
Contain a carbonyl group bonded to two R groups.
60
What are esters?
Products of alcohol and acid reactions; contribute to food aromas.
carbonyl connected to an r group and OR group.
61
What are ethers?
Single oxygen atom bonded to two R groups, seen in some lipids.
62
What are carboxylic acids?
Carboxyl (-COOH) groups, vital in biological interactions.
63
What are anhydrides?
High-energy molecules (e.g., ATP, ADP) often containing phosphorus
64
what does pryo mean?
fire or a lot of energy
65
what are the most important anhydrides?
ATP (has 3 phosphorous)
ADP (has 2 phosphorous)
66
What is special about Nitrogen?
most of the air we breathe is nitrogen. Found in amino groups (-NH2), nitrates, nitrites, and nitrogen gas (N2).
Common in amino acids and preservatives.
67
Amino Acids
20 diff amino acids, all have same basic structure, differentiate from other amino acids by the r group, all have an amino group on one side, and a carboxyl group on the other, building blocks for proteins, D and L isomers of amino acids.
68
Which isomer do we see in living things?
L isomer
69
What is special about sulfur?
Rare but critical in biomolecules (e.g., cysteine and methionine).
Forms sulfhydryl (-SH) groups contributing to protein structure and function.
70
What is special about sulfhydryl group
are made of a sulfur atom and hydrogen atom and we find these stuck to big hydrocarbons, when it is there it is probably why the molecule does what it does.
71
Cysteine and methionine:
if cysteine is in the subgroups then it is likely the most important in the molecule. Out of all amino acids these 2 are the ones that contain sulfur. BABY CHICKEN. Used as medicine
72
What is special about phosphorous?
Found in phospholipids, DNA, RNA, and phosphoric acid.
Key to molecular structures and energy metabolism.
73
What are monosaccharides?
Simple sugars (e.g., glucose with 6 carbons).
74
What are disaccharides?
Combination of two monosaccharides (e.g., lactose = glucose + galactose Sucrose: table sugar glucose+ fructose
Maltose= glucose+ glucose).
Used to differentiate microorganisms by dietary preferences.
75
What are oligosaccharides?
Chains of 2-10 monosaccharides.
76
What are polysaccharides?
Long chains for structural and energy storage purposes (e.g., starch, cellulose).
77
What are lipids?
Fatty acid esters, insoluble in water.
78
What is a fatty acid?
Hydrocarbon chains with carboxyl groups.
79
What is a simple lipid?
Combination of fatty acids and alcohol.
80
What is a trigylceride?
Composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
81
What is a phospholipid?
Amphipathic molecules forming cell membranes.
82
What are waxes?
Long hydrocarbon chains.
83
What are the structures of lipids?
Lipid bilayers form spontaneously in water.
Liposomes (closed bilayers) are used in drug delivery.
84
What is DNA made out of?
Made of nucleotides (sugar, base, phosphate).
85
What is DNAs primary structure?
Sequence of nucleotides.
86
What is DNAs secondary structure?
Double helix with complementary base pairing.
87
What are DNAs helical details?
10 base pairs per turn; major and minor grooves.
88
What is RNA?
Product of transcription, complementary to DNA.
89
What is RNAs primary structure?
linear sequence
90
What is RNAs secondary structure?
two-dimensional folds?
91
What is RNAs tertiary structure?
three-dimensional conformation
92
What are proteins composed of?
Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Consist of amino terminal and carboxyl terminal ends.
93
What are proteins primary structure?
amino acid sequence
94
what are proteins secondary structure?
Folding patterns (e.g., alpha-helices, beta-sheets) via hydrogen bonds.
95
What are proteins tertiary structure?
3D structure determined by R group interactions.
96
What are proteins quaternary structure?
Assembly of multiple polypeptide chains.
97
What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts with substrate specificity (e.g., lock and key model).
98
What do enzymes require?
cofactors
99
What is an organic cofactor?
Vitamins or prosthetic groups.
100
What is an inorganic cofactor?
metal ions
101
Enzymes temperature optimal range
(~40-50°C); extremes cause denaturation.
102
Enzymes preffered pH
neutral to slightly alkaline conditions (pH 7-8).
103
What is competitive inhibition?
Resemble substrate; reversible.
104
What is non-competitive inhibition?
Bind elsewhere, affecting activity.
105
What is allosteric regulation?
Enzymes with regulatory sites can have activity modulated
106
What do positive effectors do?
enhance activity
107
What do negative effectors do?
decrease activity
108
What are key features in compound microscope?
Multiple lenses; objective lens (near specimen) and ocular lens (eyepiece).
109
What are key features in brightfield microscope?
Produces a bright field of view under illumination.
110
What is the objective lens in compound microscope?
Typically 3-4 lenses; magnifies specimen.
111
What is ocular lens in compound microscope?
Eyepiece with 10x or 20x magnification.
112
What is real image?
Image created by the objective lens.
113
What is virtual image?
What is perceived by the brain when viewed through the microscope.
114
What is magnification?
Total magnification = Objective magnification × Ocular magnification
115
What is resolving power?
The ability to distinguish two closely spaced objects.
Improved by increasing numerical aperture and using shorter wavelengths (e.g., blue/violet light).
116
What is refractive index?
Light bends when transitioning through materials of different densities (e.g., glass slide).
Oil immersion improves clarity by matching the refractive index of glass.
117
What is the condenser and diaphragm?
Found at the base; control light focus and intensity.
118
What is the purpose of staining?
Enhances visibility of microorganisms under a microscope.
119
What is chromophore group in a dye?
provides color
120
what is the auxochrome group in dye?
Charged group enabling dye adherence to cells
121
what are the basic dyes?
crystal violet, safranin, malachite green, methylene blue
122
What is simple staining?
Single dye; highlights basic structure.
123
What is complex staining?
Multi-step process for detailed visualization.
124
What is differential staining?
Distinguishes between different cell types (e.g., Gram stain, Acid-fast stain).
125
What is acid-fast staining?
divides bacteria into acid fast and non-acid fast bacteria, usually used when want to find microbacteria
126
what is myobacterium?
used to detect cells that have tough waxy walls ex. Someone who has tuberculosis
127
what are the steps of acid-fast staining
-Primary stain: carbol-fuchsin (red) first step, reddish purple (maroon) then washed off and treated w acid alcohol
-Decolorizer: acid alcohol where the action is, bc there will prob be regular bacteria on the slide and they don’t have waxy walls, the acid alcohol washes off the bacteria that doesn’t have waxy walls so that stays
-Counterstain (secondary stain): methylene blue color regular bacteria blue but TB will stay red, famous and inexpensive way to see who has TB
128
What is gram staining?
common stain, divide bacteria into 2 , gram pos and gram neg
129
what are the steps of gram staining?
-Primary stain: crystal violet stain purple and rise off and treat w mordant
-Mordant: iodine brown color, the iodine doesn’t color the bacteria brown, it still keeps it purple it just has iodine in it now
-Decolorizer: ethanol if the cell has a lot of lipid in it and not much carbohydrate the alcohol will wash out the iodine if it has little lipid and a lot of carb the purple iodine will not wash out
-Counterstain (secondary stain): safranin red if the cells are purple the saf will not make it red if the cells are washed out then they will be red (fat cells gram neg stain red) (carb cells gram pos stain purple)
130
What color is gram-positive?
Purple (carbohydrate-rich walls).
131
What color is gram-negative?
Red (lipid-rich walls).
132
What is darkfield microscopy?
Uses a specialized condenser to block direct light, allowing angled light to illuminate the specimen.
Produces images where the specimen appears bright against a dark background.
Common for viewing live or unstained specimens.
133
What is phase contrast microscopy?
Enhances contrast by using differences in light refraction through various cell densities.
134
What is the bright phase in phase contrast microscopy?
lighter images
135
What is the dark phase in phase contrase microscopy?
darker images
136
What is florescent microscopy?
Combines darkfield condenser with UV or blue light sources.
137
what is fluorochrome staining?
special staining technique, fluorescent stain, w this dye the light beam hits the molecule it bounces off at a greater wavelength, to the eye it looks like it glows but its not actually
138
What are examples of fluorochrome dyes?
Auramine O, acridine orange, fluorescein.
139
What is immunofluorescence?
Antibodies are tagged with fluorescent dyes to target specific microbes (e.g., fluorescein isothiocyanate for green fluorescence, and rhodamine (yellow)).
140
What are key features of electron microscopy?
Magnification up to 1 million times.
Requires a vacuum; specimens must be dead.
Uses electron beams with short wavelengths for high resolution. uses electromagnetic coils and a fluorescent screen to see the picture you use a screen.
141
What does transmission electron microscope (TEM) produce?
2D images
142
What does scanning electron microscope (SEM) produce?
3D images (like using a telescope)
143
During specimen prep what is fixing?
Chemicals like osmium tetroxide or glutaraldehyde stabilize samples.
144
During specimen prep what is staining?
Contrast enhanced using heavy metals (e.g., uranyl acetate, lead citrate).
145
During specimen prep what is coating?
Platinum coating improves image clarity.
146
What is whole mount?
technique where the entire specimen is viewed using copper grids instead of glass slides.
147
what is shadow casting?
technique where metal atoms scatter over the specimen like snow, creating contrast.
148
What is ultrathin sectioning?
technique where samples sliced into thin sections with an ultramicrotome.
149
what is freeze fracturing?
Specimens frozen with liquid nitrogen, fractured, coated with metal, and viewed as impressions.
150
summary of key techniques of microscopes?
Compound microscopes are versatile and widely used for basic staining and observation.
Specialized techniques like fluorescent and electron microscopy provide advanced imaging for detailed structural and functional studies.
Staining methods are tailored for different microorganisms and cellular components, aiding in diagnosis and research.
151
sterilization is what?
removal of all living things, spores are killed
152
what is disinfection?
removal of all vegetative forms of microorganisms (vegetative means cells) (so all living cells are removed) spores are NOT removed (e.g. objects like knives, table tops, scissors)
153
What is antiseptic?
in antiseptic were talking about human body, it is possible to remove all living cells on hands/ skin, usually the agent (tool to remove cells that are on the skin) is gentle, could use on objects but usually it is more expensive
154
what us the aseptic technique?
(asepsis) not an agent, it’s a method, a method of handling to prevent contamination, for example, a bandaid comes sterile and u open and the way u open it and use it asepsis, if u take the fabric u have contaminated it so that’s a bad asepsis technique, if u open the band aid w/o touching the fabric that’s a good technique
155
What is moist heat sterilization?
coagulation of macromolecules, poach egg the egg whites are clear after u heat it its white that’s coagulated it’s a diff structure, most pop way is pasteurization
156
What is pasteurization?
destroy vegetative pathogens closer to disinfection not sterilization, loaded w microorganisms, those organisms that are more dangerous are sensitive to heat, when u pasteurize milk the dangerous ones are killed while the not so bad arent
63 degrees centrigrade for 60 min
157
What is autoclaving?
does sterilize, steam under pressure, basic conditions 120 degrees centigrade w for 15 min 15 psi (pounds per square inch) similar to a pressure cooker,
158
what is dry heat sterilization?
baking in a oven, basic conditions 160-180 degrees centigrade for 1-2 hours, only good for metal or glass,
159
what is extreme cold sterilization?
not a method of sterilizing or disinfection it’s a method of preservation
160
what are the types of extreme cold preservation?
Lyophilization or freeze drying:
161
what is Lyophilization or freeze drying?
biological sample and freeze it immediately w liquid nitrogen and put it in a vacuum and the water that’s in the Ice and it goes from solid to gas and u get a preserved dry sample, for 1000s of years until u add water to it, food companies started experimenting and so they freeze dried food, most pop when younger was freeze dried fruit and put it in cereal,
162
what does filtration do?
remove cells
163
what does a nitrocellulose filter do?
tiny little holes, so tiny bacteria cannot go through, good for heat sensitive liquids like antibiotics
164
what does radiation do?
causes mutations
165
what does UV light do?
kills bacteria, good for flat surfaces
166
what does ionizing radiation do?
penetrates, good for pharmaceuticals and medical supplies to sterilize
167
what is a phenol?
destroy proteins and inactivate enzymes
168
what is lysol?
disinfectant
169
what does Camphophenique do?
for the body, mix of phenol and mineral oil, used on damaged area for infections, mosquito bites, cold sores (no cure but helps heal faster),
170
what is unique about alcohol?
attack lipids, works better at 70% then it does at 100%, with a little of water in it, attacks the membranes
171
what alcohol do we use in healthcare?
isopropanol
172
what alcohol do we drink?
ethanol and has to be from fermentation to drink bc some are made from oil
173
what do halogens do?
inactivate sulfihydro groups, important for chemical rxns, if interfered can kill the cell
174
what is clorox made of?
iodine and chlorine, it is the most common form of chlorine
175
peroxide is what type of agent?
oxidizing agent, microbial agent
176
what is miscibility?
molecules ability to mix
177
what do soaps do?
enable oil and water to mix, sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids
178
what do detergents do?
synthetic hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends
179
what is a form of an alkylating agent?
formaldehyde, formalin and glutaraldehyde and also ethylene oxide
180
what do we use formaldehyde, formalin and glutaraldehyde for?
science lab, disinfect vaccines, hospital, interfere w alkyl groups (methyl group) specifically an amino acid it tears it up, they are liquid,
181
what is ethylene oxide?
gas version, comes in a tank, very poisonous, hospitals use it to sterilize bandages, machines look like microwave oven,
182
what are heavy metals?
Hg, Ag, Pb, Cd, Zn
183
what do the heavy metals do?
lost hearing from toxic metals, elemental metals, mercury used a lot in medicine, decreasing because it is poisonous, silver is advocated in many cases--> catheters treated w silver to help w growth of bacteria, there are mercury compounds that are used still for cuts, mercurochrome orange/red color, used for cuts or scrapes
184
chemotherapy is what?
use of drug to damage the microorganism but not the patient
185
antibiotics are what?
chemicals made by one microorganism to kill ot inhibit another microorganism
186
what are bacillus and streptomyces?
makes antibiotics for bacteria
187
what are penicillium and cephalosporium?
makes antibiotics for fungi
188
broad spectrum antibiotics
good against many diff organisms (gram pos or gram neg) ex. ampicillin (less powerful)
189
narrow spectrum antibiotics
good against one or a few species (advantage is usually more powerful)
190
bactericidal antibiotic
kill the bacterias (penicillin)
191
bacteriostatic
stop the bacterias growth but dont kill them (most common) need perscription bc theyre toxic
192
indirect toxicity of chemotherapeutic agents
allergy
193
direct toxicity of chemotherepeutic agents
damage tissues directly
194
why do we use topical antibiotics
many antibiotics are too toxic to injest so u use them on the surface of the body
195
mechanisms of antibiotics
categorized by how they work
196
inhibitors of cell wall synthesis
best antibiotics bc they arent toxic to ppl or animals bc they dont have cell walls, they attack the peptidoglycan
197
peptidoglycan
can cause bacteria to explode (lysis)
198
inhibitor of cell wall synthesis example
penicillin and cephalosporin
199
inhibitors of cell membrane function examples
amphotericin B- binds to steriles of fungi
polymyxins- used for bacteria, act as cationic detergents (detergents w a pos charge) cause the cell to be leaky
200
inhibitors of protein synthesis
affect the wall, most popular are ribosomes
201
streptomycin
first discovered, many antibiotics related to this, first good cure to TB, all end in mycin
202
chloramphenicol
chemical not an antibiotic that acts like an antibiotic works at the ribosome
203
tetracycline
antibiotic, popular in dentistry because it deposits in the bone (yellow)
204
rifampicin
inhibit RNA polymerase, effective against organism that cause menigitis and pulmonary
205
griseofulvin
fungi that affects nuclleic acid synthesis, toxic
206
5-iodo-2 deoxyuridine (AZT)
first drug w effectiveness for AIDs
207
acyclovir
host DNA polymerase, used for virus specifically herpes, if u stop host DNA it will kill the virus (not a cure, it just helps)
208
interferon
antiviral agent, part of the immune system, when a virus infects some cell, the infected cell produces interferon, those chemicals make neighboring cells protect themselves
209
antimetabolites
not an antibiotic
210
what is sulfanilamide
antimetabolite, sulfa is key part, interfere w folic acid synthesis, it is a chemical
211
folic acid
needed for cells in general, we cant make it, sulfa interferes w the bacteria making the folic acid, cells in general have to have it
212
antibiotics in animal feed
when we give antibiotics to animals it improves their health and helps them grow bigger and faster but then that means we eat those animals w the antibiotics
213
microbial drug resistance
heavy use of antibiotics, increased the evolution of antibiotics, trouble w antibiotics not working anymore
214
impermeability
organisms can become impermeable to antibiotics
215
mutations in drug resistance
because of the drug resistance (might be a change in ribosome)
216
plasmids in drug resistance
new genes on plasmids, tiny chromosomes, not necessary for chromosome to exist but they are there, cause the cell to be protected by antibiotics
217
enzymes( beta-lactamase)
code for enzymes to inactivate antibiotics (destroys penicillin)
218
minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)
least amount of antibiotic to use, tubes inoculated w bacteria, some grow but some dont
219
disc diffusion
popular in hospitals to get info about what antibiotic would be best, streak plate and swab colony and get a disc and impregnate w antibiotic and put it on the disc if the antibiotic has a big effect on the bacteria then the growth wont be alot so it will see if the antibiotic is good or bad, issue is the antibiotic needs a high concentration that is over the toxicity level then u cant use bc it will kill the person
220
What is media?
food for microorganisms (plural)
221
what is medium?
one singular food to grow organisms
222
what are the forms of media?
broth and agar
223
what is broth?
liquid food for microorganisms
224
what is agar?
semi-solid food for microorganisms
225
what is the chemical used to make agar called?
it is also called agar, the chemical makes broth turn into semi solid like Jello, has a solidifying agent to it, it is a complex carbohydrate, it comes from kelp
226
what is a pipet used for?
used to measure media, used to transfer media from one place to another
227
what are the different measurements of pipets?
10 mL- hold 10 mL in 1 mL increments
5 mL- hold 5 mL in 1 mL increments
1 mL- hold 1 mL in 0.1 mL increments
228
what are the pipet styles?
blow-out and non-blow out
229
what is the blow-out pipet?
pull up liquid and blow it out, measure liquid and release it, u must get rid of the last volume of the tip of pipette
230
what is the non-blow out pipet?
u do not blow out, if u blew it out you would get an extra mL, it is not easy to see
231
what is a sterile pipet?
transfer dangerous liquids, don’t want to touch the bottom half of pipet only touch the top (handle) sterile can be disposable or
reusable- wash them and autoclave them and store in big metal cans
232
what is a propipet?
fit on the ends of pipettes, historically ppl used to use their mouths
233
what are rubber bulbs used for?
to create a vacuum that fills the pipette with liquid, used to use these
234
what are pipumps used for?
transferring precise volumes of liquid from one container to another
235
what is a pipette gun?
a foot long, when u need a lot of mls in a certain amount (like if u need to keep getting 2 mls), can use in increments
236
what is peristaltic pump used for?
used to fill up test tubes faster
237
what are micropipets used for?
1-2 drops
238
What is a pipetman?
a brand of pipet used to precisely measure and dispense small volumes of liquid
239
What is an eppendorf?
came before pipette, is a small, conical plastic tube used in labs for handling and storing small liquid volumes, typically with a snap-lock cap.
240
what is complex media?
most common, called complex bc it has a lot of kinds chemicals in it, vegetables, animals, proteins, sugars, salts, dyes or other chemicals that are used for medium to used in a certain process, can buy in a form of a powder or a bottle, basic info on how to use it is on the bottle
241
what is rich medium?
nutrient-dense growth medium used in microbiology to support the growth of a wide variety of microorganisms, containing ample vitamins, amino acids, and other growth factors.
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what is minimal medium?
chemically defined medium, we know exactly what chemical is on it, microorganism that grows in minimal makes everything needed for life in it
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what is agar (solidifying agent)?
turn the broth into agar by adding chemical called agar, it is in the form of a crystal powder, it is a complex carb from seaweed
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what is kelp (seaweed) used for?
health product, properties, melts at 80 degrees centigrade, hardens at 42 degrees centigrade, to make agar plated use 16g of agar per liter, looks kinda like sand, liquid to solid, sometimes we make semisoft agar, we use 8g per liter for this, these microbiological constants
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minimal agar media
same basic idea as minimal broth, food using simple chemicals
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nutritional (complex) agar media
serves to grow organisms, one type is nutrient agar, that’s the name of the product, its not very rich, BHI (brain heart infusion) roast beef mashed potatoes and gravy
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selective agar media (complex)
some microorganisms grow some don’t, antibiotic on it so only grow if they’re resistant to it
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differential agar media (complex)
used to help discover what type of organism it is, used to distinguish one organism from another, with enough types u can name them
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Triple sugar iron (TSI), Urea, Simmons Citrate and Sugar Fermentations
these are diff types of agar, originally purple if they like to eat sugar, they turn yellow
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Selective and differential (complex) agar media
can do selectiveness and differential
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MacConkey is what?
most famous example, pinkish, lactose (milk sugar) if organism can’t eat lactose its colorless if it can then its red
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AUTOCLAVING is used to do what in agar media?
used to sterilize these, melt agar and sterilize the media, liquid into tubes and loosen caps and then autoclave it, then tighten caps, with agar we use big flasks, and that will melt the agar and sterilize it and then mix it when it comes out bc the agar is like sand and sinks to the bottom, after it cools to 50 degrees then we pour it into petri plates
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inoculation of agar media
entire bottles of microorganisms, a loop will not work, a rule if u want to inoculate a 10 bottle use the tube if u want to do bigger u use more culture,
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what is inoculum?
a small amount of microorganisms or cells introduced into a growth medium to start a culture.
