Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Define “Development”
A
Process of age-related changes across the lifespan (changes in growth, feelings, patterns of thinking)
2
Q
Define the Lifespan Perspective
A
Theory that human development is a lifelong process of change that occurs in many different ways
3
Q
5 assumptions of life-span perspective:
A
- Development is lifelong
- Development is multidimensional - affected by multiple mechanisms (biological, psychological, social) & domains (physical, cognitive, psychosocial)
- Development is multidirectional - joint expression of growth & decline (within & across domain)
- Development is highly plastic - open to change at all points in life
- Development is affected by multiple interacting influences
4
Q
Define “Age-Graded Influences”
A
Influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group (predictable)
5
Q
Define “History-Graded Influences”
A
Forces that influence the behavior & attitudes of individuals in a certain generation (cohort) at a formative time in their lives
Ex. Teens & the Covid-19 Pandemic ; Gentle Parenting (today) vs Authoritarian Parenting (70s)
6
Q
Define “Normative Influences”
A
Unusual occurrences that have a major impact but are not applicable to many people
Ex. Injuries from car crash ; winning the lottery
7
Q
Define “Theory”
A
Orderly, integrated set of statements that describe, explain, & predict behavior
- Provide organizing framework for observations
- Produce hypotheses
- Offer practical guidance
8
Q
Define “Organismic Theories” (view of developing person)
A
Change stimulated from within organism, active
9
Q
Define “Mechanistic Theories” (view of developing person)
A
Change stimulate by environment, passive
10
Q
Define “Continuous Development” (view of the course of development)
A
Gradually adding on more
11
Q
Define “Discontinuous Development” (view of the course of development)
A
New understandings emerge at particular periods
- Stage: qualitative changes
12
Q
Define the view of the “Determinants of Development”
A
- Nature: genetic, in-born qualities
- Nurture: learning & experience
13
Q
Describe “Psychodynamic Developmental Theories”
A
- Human development governed by internal/unconscious motives & drives
- Children move through stages in which they confront conflicts between inner need/drives & external demands/expectations
- How conflicts are resolved determines psychological adjustment & personality
14
Q
Describe Freud’s “Theory of Psychosexual Development”
A
- Basic personality & psychological functioning is determined by relations between 3 components of personality
- Personality development is determined by how parents manages child’s early sexual & aggressive drives (superego)
15
Q
Define “Id” (3 components of personality — Psychosexual Development)
A
- Present at birth
- Represents biological needs/desires
- Requires immediate gratification
- Unconscious
16
Q
Define “Ego” (3 components of personality — Psychosexual Development)
A
- Conscious
- Rational
- Problem-solving part of personality
- Engages in early infancy
- Restricts ID: controls urges
17
Q
Define “Superego” (3 components of personality — Psychosexual Development)
A
- Moral/ethical component of personality
- Develops from ages 3-6
- Includes conscience & ego-ideal (parent insist children conform to values of society)
18
Q
Describe Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
A
- Covers the lifespan
- Viewed personality development as a psychosocial process — influence of social interactions & culture on personality
- Emphasized psychosocial crisis/conflict — 8 stages (successful mastery of 8 stages = personality strength/virtue)
- More emphasis on “ego” than “Id” — ego identity = basic sense of who we are as individuals in terms of self-concept & self-image
19
Q
Describe “Oral” stage of Psychosexual Development
A
(Birth to 1 yr): If oral needs are not met through breastfeeding/bottle, individual may develop habits like thumb sucking, nail biting, overeating, or smoking
20
Q
Describe “Anal” stage of Psychosexual Development
A
(1-3 yrs): toddlers & preschoolers enjoy holding & releasing urine and feces; by potty training before children are ready, conflict about anal control appear in the form of extreme orderliness or disorder
21
Q
Describe “Phallic” stage of Psychosexual Development
A
(3-6 yrs): Preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation; children feel sexual desire for other-sex parent; to avoid punishment they give up desire & adopt same-sex parent’s characteristics/values — superego formed
22
Q
Describe “Latency” stage of Psychosexual Development
A
(6-11 yrs): Sexual instincts die down, superego strengthens as children acquire new social values from adults & same-sex peers
23
Q
Describe “Genital” phase of Psychosexual Development
A
(Adolescence): With puberty, sexual impulses reappear; successful development during earlier stages leads to marriage, mature sexuality, child rearing
24
Q
Describe “Basic trust vs Mistrust” stage of Psychosocial Development
A
(Birth-1yr): From warm, responsive care, infants gain sense of trust/confidence that the world is good; mistrust occurs if infants are neglected or handled harshly
25
Describe “Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt” stage of Psychosocial Development
(1-3yrs): Using new mental & motor skills, children want to decide for themselves; parents foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice & not forcing/shaming child
26
Describe “Initiative vs. Guilt” stage of Psychosocial Development
(3-6 yrs): Through make-believe play, children gain insight into the person they can become; initiative — sense of ambition & responsibility develops when parents support child’s sense of purpose (if parents demand too much self control, child experiences guilt)
27
Describe “Industry vs. Inferiority” stage of Psychosocial Stage
(6-11 yrs): At school children learn to work & cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home or school with peers lead to feelings of incompetence
28
Describe “Identity vs. Role Confusion” stage of Psychosocial Development
(Adolescence): By exploring values & vocational goals, young people form a personal identity; negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles
29
Describe “Intimacy vs. Isolation” stage of Psychosocial Development
(Early Adulthood): Young adults establish intimate relationships; because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close bonds & remain isolated
30
Describe “Generativity vs. Stagnation” stage of Psychosocial Development
(Middle Adulthood): Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for others, or productive work; person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment
31
Describe “Integrity vs. Despair” stage of Psychosocial Development
(Old Age): Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened; old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death
32
Describe “Learning Theories”
Environment controls behavior; emphasis on role of experience
33
Describe “Traditional Behaviorism” (Watson)
- Observable stimulus — response associations
- Classical Conditioning
34
Describe “Operant Conditioning” (Skinner)
Consequences of a behavior determine whether or not it is repeated in the future
- Focuses on:
- Reinforcement: increases likelihood (positive - add something; negative - remove something)
- Punishment: decrease likelihood
35
Describe “Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory” (Bandura)
- Modeling/Observational Learning: results from observing other’s behavior
- Humans as cognitive beings: active processing of info from environment plays major role in learning
- Modeling is a complex process — many factors govern decision-making (want to model people who are powerful, attractive, similar to self)
36
Describe “Cognitive Developmental Theory” (Piaget)
- Children are active players in their own development (naive scientists)
- Learning/thinking occurs in complex stages/period; thinking becomes qualitatively different across those stages — kids seek equilibrium between belief systems & info encountered everyday
- Assimilation: children incorporate new info into existing knowledge systems
- Accommodation: children change existing knowledge systems to accommodate new info
37
Describe “Information Processing”
Human mind like computer; manipulating system through which info flows (mental activities)
- Not stagelike: perceive change as increases in children;s knowledge base in a particular area
38
Describe “Sociocultural Cognitive Theory” (Vygotosky)
- How culture is transmitted among generations
- Higher mental functions grow out of social interactions & dialogues — cooperative dialogues
- Cognitive development as a socially mediated process
39
Describe “Ecological Systems Theory” (Bronfenbrenner)
Person develops within a multi-layered system for relationships
- How intrafamilial processes are affected by extrafamilial conditions
40
Define “Microsystem”
Bidirectional influences in person’s immediate environment
41
Define “Mesosystem”
Connections between microsystems
Ex. Experiences during school day affect how an individuals acts at home
42
Define “Exosystem”
Contexts that don’t include developing person but affects microsystem
43
Define “Macrosystem”
Cultural laws, values, customs
44
Define “Chronosystem”
Temporal component — reflects change over life course & history
45
What are the “Foundations of Human Development?”
Heredity & Environment
46
Define “Genotype”
Genetic make-up, set of genes inherited
47
Define “Phenotype”
Way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable characteristics
48
Define “Chromosomes”
Rodlike structures made of DNA inside cell nucleus that store & transmit genetic info — 23 pairs in each cell
49
Define “Autosomes”
Regular pairs of chromosomes (22 of 23 pairs)
50
Define “Sex Chromosomes”
23rd pair of chromosomes — determine sex of child
51
Define “DNA”
Active biochemical substance that programs the cells to manufacture vital protein substances
52
Define “Gene”
Segment of DNA along length of chromosomes — contains heredity instructions
53
What is the different forms that genes come in?
Alleles
54
Define “Homozygous”
Alleles in the pair are the same
55
Define “Heterozygous”
Alleles in the pair differ
56
Define “Sex Cells/Gametes”
Sperm, Ova; hold 23 chromosomes (instead of 46)
57
Define “Dominant-Recessive” genes
Dominant gene in pair overrides recessive gene
58
Define “Incomplete Dominance” genes
Both dominant & recessive allele are expressed
59
Describe “X-linked inheritance”
- Recessive gene carried on X chromosome in 23rd pair
- Women protected; men not protected
60
Describe “Genomic Imprinting”
Genes are chemically marked or imprinted & will behave differently depending on whether they come from mom or dad
61
Describe “Polygenic Inheritance”
Multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic
62
Describe “Heritability Estimates”
Measure extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors
- Cannot be applied to single individual
- NOT a precise statistic
- Personality traits (i.e. extraversion): rates range from .4-.5
- Schizophrenia: .8
63
Define “Kinship Studies”
Examine behaviors & traits in family members
Ex. adoption studies, twin studies
64
Define “Concordance Rates”
% of instances in which both twins show a trait when it is present in 1 twin
65
Define “Fraternal/Dizygotic”
2 fertilized ova — twins share 50% of genes
66
Define “Identical/Monozygotic”
1 zygote splits — twins share 100% of genes
67
Define “Gene-Environment Interaction”
Due to different genetic makeups, people will differ in their reactions to qualities of the environment
68
Define “Genetic-Environmental Correlations”
Genes influence environments which are exposed to
69
Describe “Passive Genotype/Environment Interactions”
- Parents provide environment influenced by own heredity
- Children may be predisposed to be responsive to this situation (genetic relation)
70
Describe “Evocative Genotype/Environment Interactions”
Different genetically-based attributes evoke certain responses
71
Describe “Niche-Picking/Active Influences”
Individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predisposition — more central as children age
72
Describe “Epigenesis”
Development results from ongoing bidirectional exchanges between heredity & all levels of environment
73
What influences make up a child’s environment?
Family, peers/classmates, school, teachers, neighborhood, town/cities, social class, socioeconomic status, cultural context/values
74
How is Socioeconomic Status Assessed?
By parental education, occupation prestige, income
75
What % of American live in poverty?
15% (21% of US children — often single parent families); involves cumulative, environmental risk exposure
76
What issues do families in poverty experience?
- Inadequate housing, dangerous/unhealthy neighborhoods
- More household disruption, daily hassles, frequent crises
- Few neighborhood resources (parks, supermarkets)
- Fewer cognitive enrichment opportunities
77
What consequences do children in poverty face?
- Discipline & parenting: stress reduces ability to parent effectively; single-parent may provide less supervision
- Physical health status
- Socioemotional functioning: greater risk of displaying behavioral/emotional problems
- Cognitive functioning: negative academic outcomes, diminished brain growth & development
78
Explain Evans & English research study (2002)
Examined environment of poverty, testing exposure to multiple risks & their impact on stress & socioemeotional adjustment; (168 poverty households & 119 middle-income households)
- Poor children exposed more often to each stressor domain than middle-income children
- Poverty — greater psychological distress & more chronic stress
79
Define “Developmental Niche” (Super & Harkness)
Interaction of components that affects what bones on within the microsystem & determines the unique world of the child
80
What multiple dimensions of our everyday physical & social settings does culture shape?
- Size & type of living space
- Sleeping & eating schedules & locations
- Social conditions (resources, people, material goods)
- Daily activities of children
81
Culture shapes childcare &…
Child-rearing customs
82
Culture shapes overall…
Psychology of the caregivers (goals, expectations, morals)
83
Explain research study “What is a Bad Kid?” (Crystal & Stevenson, 1995)
- Expected that perceptions of deviance, like perceptions of normalcy, would be influenced by sociocultural values
- Surveyed 200+ 11th graders & their mothers in 3 locations: Minneapolis, Taipei, Taiwan, & Sendai, Japan
84
Describe the General Dynamics of Conception
- Ovulation: ~ every 28 days
- Ovum: survives 24 hours
- Sperm cell: survive up to 5/6 days
- Brief window
- Fertilization: union of sperm & ovum; genetic material fuses
85
Define “Zygote”
Fertilized egg
86
How long does the “Germinal Period” last?
~ 2 weeks, fertilization — implantation
87
Define “Blastocyst”
Hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells
88
Define “Embryonic Disk”
Cells on inside — become new organism
89
Define “Trophoblast”
Outer ring of cells — will develop into 3 life-support systems
90
Define “Amnion”
Protective covering; enclose organism in amniotic fluid (cushion + temperature regulator)
91
Define “Placenta”
Mass of tissue; partial filter, food & O2 reach organism, waste carried away
92
Define “Umbilical Cord”
Rope of tissue, connects placenta to organism (anchor)
93
What does the “Germinal Period” end with?
Implantation (7-9 days after fertilization)
94
What is the duration of the “Period of the Embryo?”
2-8 weeks: most rapid prenatal changes — groundwork for body structures & internal organs begin (quickly/constantly)
95
Define “Ectoderm”
Outermost layer of embryonic disk: nervous system & skin
96
Define “Mesoderm”
Middle layer of embryonic disk — muscles, skeleton, circulatory system
97
Define “Endoderm”
Inner layer of embryonic disk — digestive system, lungs, glands
98
Define “Neural Tube”
Primitive spinal cord & brain
99
Describe the developments during weeks 4-8
- Rapid development of body parts & systems
- Internal organs more distinct
- 3 life support systems (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) mature/develop rapidly
100
Describe “Miscarriages”
- Spontaneous abortions: 15-20% (1st 2-3 months); occur by 12-13 weeks
- Inadequate development
- Umbilical problems
- Chromosomal abnormalities
101
Describe the “Period of the Fetus”
- 9th week to birth
- Development discussed in terms of trimesters
102
Define “Trimesters”
3 equal time periods in 9-month prenatal period
103
Describe the progress at the end of the first trimester (3rd month)
- Physical structures more complete
- Organs, muscles, & nervous system organize & connect
- Behavioral changes in fetus
- External genitals well formed (12th week)
- Fetal heartbeat audible with stethoscope
104
Describe second trimester (13-24 weeks)
- Fetal growth
- Mother can feel movements
- Nearly all neurons (in brain) produced by trimester’s end
- Vernix & Lanugo develop
105
Define “Vernix”
White, cheese like substance covers fetus & protects skin from chapping
106
Define “Lanugo”
White, downy hair — help vernix stick to skin
107
Describe the 3rd Trimester (25-38 weeks)
- Age of viability (22-26 weeks)
- Body systems become more complete & prepare for outside world
- Brain matures extensively; cerebral cortex enlarges
- Behavior becomes more organized (i.e. sleep patterns)
- Responds more clearly to sounds in external world
- In 8th month: layer of fat develops under skin (warmth)
- Prepares for delivery: change position, lose vernix & lanugo
108
Define “Age of Viability”
(22-26 weeks): age which fetus can survive if born early (50/50 chance after ~ 24 weeks)
109
At which stage for children grow more rapidly
Prenatal stage
110
Describe “Maternal Nutrition” (general risk factors/prenatal environmental influences)
- Damage CNS: fewer brain cells, low birth weight (linked to adult diseases)
- Recommended to gain 25-30 lbs; take multivitamins
111
Define “Emotional Stress” (general risk factors/prenatal environmental influences)
- Major life events, chronic stress
- Associated with miscarriage, low birth weight, premature
- Less O2 & nutrients to fetus
- Stress hormones: increase fetal heart rate & heighten stress reactivity later in life
112
Describe “Maternal Age” and its general risk factors/prenatal environmental influences
- Moms in 20s have greatest success rate; risks for healthy women in 30s not different
- After 40: increased risk infertility, miscarriage, chromosomal defect (i.e. Down’s Syndrome
- Concerns for adolescent moms: premature, increased mortality rate, low birth weight
113
Define “Teratogens”
Environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal period; cause low birth weight, prematurity, miscarriage, underdeveloped brain
114
What is the frequency of birth defects caused by teratogens?
5-8% live births
115
What factors determine the impact of teratogens?
- Dose: length & degree of exposure
- Genetic predispositions
- Presence of other factors (i.e. several negative factors at once)
- Time of exposure: sensitive period — parts undergoing rapid development are vulnerable
116
What helps have a healthy pregnancy?
- Good health & fitness
- Balanced diet
- Gain 25lbs
- 5+ prenatal doctor visits
117
What are 7 common teratogens?
1. Illegal drugs
2. Tobacco/nicotine (low birth weight)
3. Alcohol (all types)
4. Prescription & nonprescription medications
5. Radiation
6. Environmental pollution
7. Infectious disease (i.e. German measles, HIV/AIDS)
118
Describe how paternal factors impact pregnancy?
- Exposure to toxins can lead to abnormal sperm — low birth weight/defects
- Later paternal age linked to some birth defects & w/ autism (in men greater than 40 yrs)
119
Define Episiotomies
Surgical cuts (help make space to deliver baby)
120
Define “Fetal Monitoring”
Inhibits mobility
121
Define “Analegesics”
Pain medication used to relax mom & relive pan
Ex. Demerol - cross placental barrier, baby may also be sedated
122
Describe “Regional Anesthesia”
Epidural — only numbs inferior part of body (may prolong & cause trouble pushing)
123
What are the goals/benefits of natural/prepared childbirth?
- Goal: Make hospital birth more comfortable & rewarding for mom
- Benefits: moms feel in control, short/less stressful labor
124
Define “Doula”
Trained to provide physical & emotional support to mother (experience fewer symptoms of postpartum depression)
125
Define “Birthing Centers”
- Combine intimacy of home birth w/ medical tech of hospital
- Accommodate entire process
- Delivery by licensed midwife
- Encourage preparation
126
Describe a newborn baby’s appearance
- ~ 20in long, ~7.5 lbs
- Often not attractive: red/puffy skin, misshapen head, etc.
- Baby features have appeal: chubby cheeks, little mouths
127
Define the “Apgar Scale”
Used to assess the newborn’s physical condition on 5 criteria: heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, reflex irritability
128
When are Apgar Scale ratings given?
At 1 & 5 minutes old
129
Define the numbers of the Apgar Scale
- 7-10: good physical condition
- 4-6: some difficulties, need some assistance
- 3 or below: emergency
130
Define “Reflex”
Inborn, automatic response to a form of stimulation; organized behavior patterns that govern newborn’s movements (involuntary)
131
What is the purpose of reflexes?
Give newborns adaptive responses to environments before they can learn about the world
132
Describe the “Survival Value” of reflexes
Rooting (find nipple), sucking; locating food
133
Describe the “Precursors of Later Motor Skills”
Stepping reflex (stimulate muscles, nervous system)
134
Describe the “Moro Reflex”
Startle response; remains from earlier versions of Homo Sapiens
135
What is the duration of some reflexes?
Most disappear during first 6 months
136
What do reflexes help diagnose?
Early neurological problems
137
Describe the newborn sensory capacity: “Touch”
- Sensitivity to touch, pain is well-developed at birth
- Help stimulate physical & emotional development
138
Describe the newborn sensory capacity: “Taste & Smell”
- Highly developed sense of taste — sweet
- Communicate taste/odor preferences (some are innate)
- Attracted to odor of mom’s lactating
139
Describe the newborn sensory capacity: “Hearing”
- Prefer complex sound (voices)
- Distinguish almost all sounds in human languages
- Locate & orient to sounds at 2 months (slow)
140
Describe the newborn sensory capacity: “Vision”
- Least mature of newborn senses
- Visual acuity (fineness of discrimination; measure of sharpness & clarity of vision)
141
Define “States of Arousal”
Degrees of sleep & wakefulness (in newborns)
142
How much time does a newborn spend sleeping?
~ 16-18 hours
143
Define “REM sleep”
Rapid eye movement sleep; body & body — 50% of newborns; stimulate
144
How much crying does a newborn do?
2-3 hours a day
145
What is the function of crying in newborns?
Communicate physical needs
- Different types of cries
- Hunger most common cause
- Increases during early weeks, peaks at 6 months, then declines
146
What is the impact of crying in newborns?
Stimulate strong feelings of arousal & discomfort
147
Describe the “Energy Needs” of newborns
Twice those of adults, 25% caloric intake for growth
148
What are the “Advantages of Breastmilk for Babies?”
1. Correct balance of fat & protein
2. Nutritional completeness
3. Protection against disease: antibodies from mom to baby; breast-fed babies have fewer illnesses/infections
4. Digestibility
5. Smoother transition to solid foods
6. Often cheaper, more immediate, safer
149
What are the “Advantages of Breastfeeding for Mothers?”
Weight loss, breast cancer protection
150
What are reasons why formula is considered?
- Medical reasons: difficult, can’t nurse, etc.
- Historical trends: rise in formula feeding in 60s/70s
- Societal structures & barriers
151
When does the most rapid growth occur?
In the first 2 years of life
152
What are the patterns of growth in infants?
- In spurts
- Plump up & fill out — baby fat, natural insulation, seen at 9 months
- Unevenly — different parts grow at different rates
153
Define “Cephalocaudal Trend”
Organized pattern of physical growth & motor control, from head to tail
154
Define “Proximodistal Trend”
Pattern of physical strength & motor control that proceeds from center of body outward
155
When do children develop neurons?
They have nearly all neurons at birth
156
Describe the development of nervous system in the first two years of life
- Development of connections between neurons
- Growth of neural fibers & synapses
- Experience & stimulation play key role
- Synaptic pruning: unused/unnecessary synapses eliminated
157
Define “Myelination”
Neural fibers coated with insulating fatty sheath (myelin) — improves message transfer
158
Describe the “Growth of Cerebral Cortex”
Growth takes place in cerebral cortex — largest brain structure, last to stop growing
159
Describe the “Sequence of Brain Development vs. Quality”
- Sequence is genetically programmed
- Quality of neural development is shaped by experiences
- Rich experiences (stimulation) produce rich brains
160
How does experience affect the brain?
Experience wires brain during periods of growth (sensitive periods)
161
Define “Mechanism”
Repeated experiences — knit neurons into circuits
162
What is the general “Upside of Early Plasticity?”
- Malleable early brain more likely to recover from strokes & injuries — compensation - early preschool programs can help overcome deficits
163
What is the general “Downside of Early Plasticity?”
Under-stimulation during critical years — grave consequences (underdeveloped & smaller brains)
164
Describe how quality of caregiving has a big effect on brain development
- Parental interactions/responses play central role in setting up neural cavity (i.e. playful interactions)
- Overstimulation can be problematic (overwhelm neural system)
165
Which of the 5 senses is the last to reach fully capacity/development?
Vision
166
Define “Depth Perception”
Ability to judge distance of objects from one another to ourselves
167
When does depth perception develop?
~ 2-3 months old
168
Describe the “Role of Motion”
Provides information about depth
169
Describe the role of “Independent Movement”
Vital role in depth perception’s refinement (i.e. crawling)
170
Describe “Gibson & Walk (1960) visual cliff demonstrations”
- Tested 36 crawling 6.5-14 month olds
- Children wouldn’t crawl across “deep” side — old enough to distinguish/depth perception
171
What are a child’s visual preferences?
Patterned & complex stimuli over plain
172
Describe “Contrast Sensitivity”
If babies can detect a difference in contrast, they will prefer pattern with more contrast
173
Describe “Fantz & Looking Chamber”
- Tested infants 10 hours old to 6 months old
- Infants prefer human face (out of other stimulus papers)
- Might be born with a “template” of human face to aid survival — role of early experience
174
Describe the nature of the “Sensorimotor Stage” in Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Infants “think” & learn about world via 5 senses and motor skills
175
Define “Schemes”
Psychological structures that organize experience
176
How does “Cognitive Change” take place?
- Adaption: process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
- Assimilation: external world interpreted through existing schemes
- Accommodation: new schemes created/old schemes are adjusted to better fit environment
- Organization: internal process of rearranging & linking schemes
177
When does the “Sensorimotor Stage” occur?
Birth to 2 years old
178
What is the “Principle Component/Circular Reaction” of the Sensorimotor Stage?
- Means by which infants build schemes by trying to repeat chance events caused by own motor activity
179
Describe “Substage 1 - Reflexive Schemes”
(Birth - 1 month): Exercising reflexes, building blocks of sensorimotor intelligence
180
Describe “Substage 2 - Primary Circular Reactions”
(1 month - 4 months): Circular reactions oriented towards infant’s own body
181
Describe “Substage 3 - Secondary Circular Reactions”
(4 - 8 months): repeat interesting/novel events in the environment
182
Describe “Substage 4 - Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions”
(8 - 12 months)
- Engage in goal-directed behavior
- See beginnings of object permanence (understanding objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen, heard, touched)
- Problems with A-not-B task
183
Describe “Substage 5 - Tertiary Circular Reactions”
(12 - 18 months): experimenting & repeating acts within variation
184
Describe “Substage 6 - Mental Representation”
(18 months - 2 years): final goal; represent world in symbolic, conceptual matter
- Able to create mental representations (internal images of object, actions, events)
- Use words & gestures as symbols
- Deferred imitation: ability to reproduce behavior of models no longer present
- Changes in nature of play: functional to make-believe
185
Describe Updated Perspective on Infant Cognition
- Infants display certain cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget believed
- Cognitive development is gradual, continuous, uneven
- Infants born with set of innate knowledge system or core domains often though — permits ready grasp of new knowledge
186
Describe the “Behaviorist Perspective” of Language Development
- Language is acquired through operant conditioning (reward & reinforcement) and imitation
- Problem: unique verbal creations & errors
187
Describe the “Nativist Perspective” of Language Development
- All children possess an innate, biologically-based system for language acquisition called language acquisition device (set of rules common to all languages)
188
Describe the “Interactionist Perspective” of Language Development”
Language achievements emerge through an interaction of innate abilities & environmental influences
189
What are the 6 characteristics of Infant-Directed Speech (IDS)
1. High-pitched, exaggerated expression
2. Short sentences & phrases
3. Simplification: concrete, simple vocab, labeling, avoid pronouns, talk about here & now
4. High proportion of questions & commands
5. Repetition
6. Expansions
190
Describe “Interactive Activities that Facilitate Language Development”
1. Joint Attention - child attends to same object or event as caregiver
2. Turn taking games - demonstrate conversational turn-taking
3. Preverbal gestures - help support spoken language & influence others’ behavior
191
Describe “Cooing” (prelingusitic communication)
- Vowel sounds
- ~ 2 months old
192
Describe “Babbling” (prelingistic communication)
Cooing with consonants
193
Describe “Intonation” (prelinguistic communication)
Changes in pitch
194
Describe Language Universalists vs. Language Specialists
Language Universalists can distinguish & make all human sounds than language specialists
195
What develops before productive language
Receptive language & comprehension
196
Define “Holophrastic Speech”
Use of single words to convey complete thoughts
197
Define “Overextension”
Defining a word too broadly
198
Define “Underextension”
Defining a word too narrowly
199
Describe “Vocabulary Explosion”
(Between 18 & 24 months): categorization, memorization (in some infants)
200
Define “Telegraphic Speech”
Two-word utterances
201
Describe Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
(Birth - 2yrs): infants think by acting on world with eyes, ears, hands, mouths
202
Describe Preoperational Stage (Piaget)
(2-7 yrs): preschool children use symbols to represent earlier sensorimotor skills; development of language & make-believe play — thinking lacks logic
203
Describe Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
(7 -11 yrs): Children’s reasoning becomes logical & better organized; things stay the same even when appearance changes, organize objects into hierarchies; think in a logical, organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information
204
Describe Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
(11 yrs): capacity for abstract, systematic thinking; form & tests hypotheses, evaluate logic of verbal statements without referring to real world circumstances
