Exam 1 Flashcards
(98 cards)
1
Q
Katalin Kariko
A
- Hungarian-born scientist
- first to suggest synthetic mRNA as a means to address diseases
- no grant money, demoted
- Problem with mRNA vaccines: causes an immune reaction and could be degraded
- Solution: change a few of the bases (modified mRNA)
- moderna, pfizer
2
Q
Parsley and Dill
A
- new source of precursor of GVA (anti-mitotic drug)
- GVA inhibits the growth of tumor cells by halting cells in mitosis and is not cytotoxic to normal cells
3
Q
transgenic tobacco plants
A
- glycolate reduces photosynthetic efficiency by 50%
- these plants process glycolate in only one cellular compartment rather than throughout entire cell
- photosynthesis improved and plant grow 40% more biomass
4
Q
photosynthetic mammalian cells
A
- transplant NTU (mini chloroplasts) into human cels
- when put into degenerating cells in mice with osteoarthritis, disease progression is prevented
- NTU produce ATP and NADPH that may be important to prevent aging and diseases
5
Q
Xenotransplantation of organs
A
-animals to humans
- from transgenic pigs and 3D tissue engineering may alter the transplant landscape
- genetically engineered pig kidney had 69 genes altered to make immune rejection less likely
6
Q
tissue engineering
A
building tissues in the lab that can use adult stem cells, somatic cells, or human embryonic stem cells
7
Q
tissue engineered intestinal organoids
A
- generate Paneth cells (defend the intestine from pathogens with secreted proteins calls “Defensins”
- defective/missing Planeth cells occur in diseases like inflammatory bowel disease
8
Q
human heart organoids
A
- could be used as “band aids” subsequent to a cardiac event
- could be used for drug discovery to identify drugs for arrhythmia
9
Q
“Self- boosting” vaccines
A
- microparticles containing vaccine that could be implanted under the skin and “time-tuned” to release several “shots” in a process called “self-boosting vaccines”
- given once and designed to boost spontaneously at specified times
- resorb over time like degradable sutures
- important for childhood vaccines in regions where people don’t have frequent access to medical care
10
Q
tiny robots detect cancer
A
- can travel deep into lungs to treat cancer
- ultrasoft tentacle is controlled by magnets
- can penetrate inaccessible lung cancer tissue deeper than conventional technology and cause less damage than chemotherapy
11
Q
He Jiankui
A
- his research led to the birth of 3 gernline edited babies
- sentences to 3 years in prison and a fine of 3 million yuan
12
Q
Casgevy
A
- US FDA approved
- first CRISPR-based gene editing therapy for sickle cell disease
- patient stem cells are harvested and CRISPR is used to turn on fetal hemoglobin
13
Q
synthetic biology
A
- engineering discipline that encompasses the synthesis or creation of complex, biologically based or inspired systems which display function that do not exist in nature using cell/molecular biology tools and techniques
- ex: bispecific, trifunctional antibodies
14
Q
bispecific, trifunctional antibodies
A
bring tumor cells together with killer T cells and Accessory cells so that the T cells can kill the cancer cells
15
Q
light powered mitochondria
A
- “optogenetically responsive mitochondria”
- C. elegans
- have a light sensitive proton pump in the mitochondria that when illuminated is similar to recharging rechargeable batteries
- when the light is on, more protons are pumped by the ontogenetically designed proton pump and more ATP is generated
- healthier, longer lifespan
16
Q
J Craig Venter
A
- constructed first self-replicating, synthetic bacterial cell- synthesized base pair chromosome of a modified Mycoplasma mycoides genome
- proof that genomes can be disigned in the computer, chemically made in the lab, and transplanted into a recipient cell to produce a new self-replicating cell controlled only by the synthetic genome
17
Q
labs on a chip/organs on a chip
A
- promise to improve and change the field of diagnostics such as cancer cell detection
- now being used for drug toxicity testing and in Vitro toxicology among other applications
18
Q
heart attack on a chip
A
- one problem with heart attacks is to better understand what happens in the heart at the no oxygen/with oxygen border or interface in the cardiac tissue
- this two part chip models this interface
- this can’t be studies in real time in animal models
- useful to identify new drugs to treat heart attack after the infarct and to better understand how the cardiomyocytes respond to this oxygen/no oxygen border
19
Q
inherited diseases
A
- research has resulted in genetic tests that can predict disease states and health issues
- hundred of gentic tests
- not all are FDA approved and many are direct to consumer which can be problematic with the public interpreting the results
20
Q
mitochondrial disease prevention
A
- using three parents
- New Hope Fertility Center (Dr. Zhang)
21
Q
biomarker
A
- can be in the form of a molecular marker (protein), circulating tumor cell, cell free DNA, exosomes, or macrovesicles that indicate the status of a possible or pre-existing disease state sampled via blood, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid
22
Q
liquid biopsies vs tissue biopsies
A
- blood/cerebrospinal fluid biopsy analysis takes a few days, not up to 6 weeks
- blood contains cfDNA from dead and recycles cancer cells
- availability for biopsy services is more limiting for tissues than blood
23
Q
Galleri test
A
- analyzes cfDNA to detect 50 types of cancer with 99.5% accuracy
- qualitative
- detects DNA methylation patterns using cell free DNA isolated from human peripheral whole blood
- certain DNA methylation patterns can serve as a signal of cancer and provide information about the origin of the cancer signal
24
Q
Elizabeth Holmes
A
- former CEO and founder of Theranos
- found guilty on 4 charges of defrauding investors
- Holmes claimed that Theranos invented technology that could accurately and reliably test for a range of conditions using just a few drops of blood
- fraudulent
25
Vortex
- relies on unique physical characteristics of CTCs to capture them in a microfluidic vortex (like eddies in a river)
- WBC and RBC move down the river faster, CTC are left behind--> collectd and counted
26
iTEARS
- nanomembrane system that harvests exosomes from tears
- collecting exosomes from tears is less invasive than from blood and may predict diseases
- can detect different types of dry eye syndrome, and others
27
cancer stem cells
- very low in number
- don't respond to standard cancer treatments
- can be inactive for years
28
tumor microenvironment
- extracellular signaling can keep cancer cells in non proliferating form or can trigger proliferation and metastasis
- what are signals and triggers
29
conjugated and bispecific antibodies
can kill cancer cells in different ways
30
genetically modified T cells
- when injected into Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia, patients homes in on the cancerous B cells inside the bone marrow killing them
31
Immunomodulators
- cancer cells have "don't kill me" signal that prevents our immune system from killing tumor cells
- new drugs now block this signal
32
migrant cancer cells
- cells that leave and original tumor can remain non-cancerous for years before awakening and generating tumors at other locations in the body--> metastatic cancer
- remain in dormant state if environment in enriched with Type III Collagen
- when inc amount of Type III collagen around cancer cells that left a tumor, cancer progression stalled and the disseminated tumor cells maintained a dormant state
- stop making Type III collagen--> metastatic
33
biotechnology
- set of disciplines to develop new medical devices, drugs, biomarkers, engineered cells for the purpose of improving human health and welfare
34
personalized medicine
- treating patients based on their own unique genomic/proteomic profiles
35
Genesight
- uses DNA to predict how you will interact with select medicines for depression
- doctor gets cheek swab, sequences, results sent to doctor
- known pharmokinetic genes that process medications are analyzed for variations that can alter the medicine efficacy and breakdown products
36
23 and me
- ancestry reports
- trait reports
- health predisposition reports
- wellness reports
- pharmacogenetics reports
37
Myriad Genetics
- kits for predicting breast and prostate cancer
38
GenomicHealth
- distributes OncotypeDX that is a genetic test used by prostate surgeons that can predict the aggressive level of individuals with prostate cancer
- helps determine "watchful waiting" or "resection" would be best treatment
39
GINA
- Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act
- enacted after Venter sequences the human genome
- states that your genetic information can't be used as a criteria for employment or medical insurance
40
SMA
- spinal muscle atrophy
- leading genetic cause of death in infants
- caused by deleted and defective genes whose normal protein products are required for proper muscle-nerve connections
41
Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressive (FOP)
- a fetal gene is not turned off
42
Human embryonic stem cells
- derived from human embryos (blastocysts) and are now in stem cell therapy clinical trials
- requires destruction of human embryos
43
Dickey-Wicker amendment
- band the use of federal research funding that uses/destroys human embryos
- have been approved to be used in stem cell therapy since 2010
44
"Extra embryoid"/"Synthetic embryos"
- behave like real, natural human embryos in culture
- made from stem cells
- most countries allow human embryos for up to 14 days in culture, but laws prevent extending this limit
- synthetic embryos are exempt--> can be used to understand embryonic development
- it has been shown to be implanted and lead to pregnancy in monkeys
45
Rhesus Monkey
- cloned via somatic cell nuclear transfer
- survived for over two years
- non-human primates are better for drug testing due to lack of genetic variability
46
aging
- sirtuin gene (longevity genes) overexpression increases max lifespan of fruit flies to round worms by up to 50%
- stem cell theory of aging: young folks sources stem cells are better and more plentiful
47
SIRT 6
- overexpressed SIRT 6 results in a reduction in frailty and an increase in lifespan by 30% compared to non-transgenic mice
- better at generating energy from stored molecules like fatty acids
- transgenic mice exhibit fewer age-dependent cancers and blood disorders
48
Teloyears
- company dedicated to reading your telomeres and comparing your "cellular age" to your chronological age
49
Longeveron
- developing solutions to aging and aging-associated diseases through the testing of allogeneic human Mesenchymal Stem Cells that are derived from the bone marrow of young, healthy donors
50
US Special Operations Command
- conducting clinical trials of a pill designed to block/reduce degenerative effects of ageing
- NAD+ enhancer
51
Reverse cellular aging
- David Sinclair
- aging is driven by epigenetic changes to the genome due to age dependent double-stranded DNA breaks
- loss of epigenetic information accelerates hallmarks of aging
- reversible by epigenetic reprograming (by manipulating the epigenome, cell ageing can be driven forward and backward and this can be down with chemical cocktails)
52
Botulinum toxin
blocks release of acetylcholine
- a potent lethal toxin that is used to treat facial dystonia
- most lethal bioterrorism agent known
53
RNAi
- approved to treat rare neurological disorder
- macular degeneration- P-Glycoprotein and MDRI (Multi Drug Resistant Protein) are two cell membrane compounds that can pump toxis compounds that include cancer drugs out of cells
54
Ricin
- toxic protein that comes from the castor bean
- one molecule binds to one ribosome and can kill a cell
- used by Russians to kill dissidents
55
tissue engineering
lab grown tissues that can be used to treat diseases, drug discovery, in vitro toxicology
- stem cells are the best source for generating organoids
56
stem cell therapy
use of stem cells from different sources to treat diseases
57
gene therapy
using gene and single base transfection technologies to cure diseases
58
adult stem cells
- most popular for medical applications are adipose (fat) derived mesenchymal stem cells
59
fetal stem cells
amniotic, umbilical cord, placental
60
embryonic stem cells
hESCs (human embryonic stem cells)
61
Patricia Ashton Derges
- operates three "Ozark Valley Medical Clinic" locations
- sold what she falsely advertised as a stem cell treatment to treat COVID 19
62
hESCs
- easy to procure
- more pluripotent (greater ability to differentiate to virtually any type of cell)
- ethical issues are a concern
- not autologous match (self to self)
63
Adult stem cells
- not as easy to procure as hESCs
- many sources ( fat, hair, teeth... etc)
- can be autologous match
- less pluripotent
- fewer ethical issues
64
Cynvenio Biosystems
makes a liquid biopsy device for the immunomagnetic (antibodies) and microfluidic capture of CTCs
65
CellInsight CX5 High Content Screening
robotic device that can identify "positive hits"
66
Robert Hooke
coined the word "cells"
67
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek
bacteria, protozoa
68
Schleiden e Schwann
cell theory
69
cell theory
1. all organisms are made of cells
2. each cell is independent of each other
3. smallest clearly defined form of life
4. cells arise from other cells
70
textile revolution
- Hematoxylin used to view nucleus
71
reticular theory
neurons are not cells; more like blood system
72
neuronal theory
neurons are cells
73
Abbe's Equation
d=.61(wavelength)/nsin(theta)
d= distance between two objects (smaller d= better resolution_
74
total magnification
product of the magnification of individual lenses
75
how to approach problem of contrast
1. Dyes (ex: Hematoxin stains nucleus)--> can be colorometric or fluorochromes
2. Manipulate light
3. Computer image algorithms
76
fluorochromes
fluorescent dyes
77
fluorescent
absorbs light at one wavelength and emits light at a longer wavelength
78
electron microscopy
- much higher resolution of ultrastructure than light microscopy
- focus high-velocity electron beam through optical lens
79
cell separation
separating the type of cell that is of interest from other cell types in tissue
- optional and not needed if working with pure cell cultures
- most widely used characteristics for separating proteins= size, charge, affinity
80
cell fractionation
separation and purification of organelles for the purpose of understanding thier functions and/or purifying a particular protein of interest from them
81
requirements of cell separation
- requires EGTA and a Protease such as Trypsin or Liberase
82
Dr. Camillo Riccordi
- developed a method using Lberase for dissociating pancreatic islets into single cell islands for cell therapy
- transplant procedure requires pooling islets from 3 recently deceased patients (Edmonton Procedure) and has been reasonably effective
83
selective surfaces
many companies produce beads with selective surfaces that can capture cells, proteins or other molecules based on ligand-receptor interactions
84
panning
cell culture based system whereby cells stick if they have the right receptor
85
sonication
using ultrasound
- does a great job of lysing the cell but can break open all membrane bound organelles because it destabilizes all cell membranes
86
rough microsomes
originate from the rough endoplasmic reticulum
- called rough because of ribosomes
87
smooth microsomes
originate from smooth endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membranes and other organelle membranes
88
buffer
a physiological saline solution that is isotonic with cells
- wide variety depending on a number of factors
- one usually adds protease inhibitors to inhibit protein degradation by lysosomes which have broken during the fractionation process that leak proteases
- "buffers"/stabilizes the change in pH that can occur during this process
89
cell culture
ability to grow cells (plant, mammalian, bacteria, etc) in an artificial environment
90
in vitro
in culture
91
in vivo
in living organisms
92
in situ
(FISH) in cell
93
George Gey
- made first culture with HeLa cells
94
Leonard Hayflick
made first culture with somatic cells
- human somatic cells= max number of doublings around 50
- indirect relationship between donor age and the maximum number of potential doublings
95
power of cell culture
1. ability to work with one cell type
2. control the environment
3. Recombinant DNA technology (mAbs, bsAbs--> disease)
4. Knock out (dec activity of gene)/Knock in (inc gene activity or ADD another gene) transgenic cells
5. Tissue engineering
6. gene function
7. drug discovery
8. drug toxicity
9. organs on a chip
10. stem cell therapy
96
limits of cell culture
a. artificial environment-- not in situ environment
b. How culture cells--> influence cell behavior
c. Genetic drift- HeLa cells (because cells in culture (especially cancer cells) will keep dividing
d. Not all cells exhibit their phenotype
e. hEgCs require unique substrate (feeder layers)
f. not all cells divide in culture (ex; adult human hepatocytes)
g. some cells lose function over time
97
telomerase-immortalized cell strains/lines
immortal compared to the parent cell strain from which they were generated
- shorter telomeres on the ends of WBC chromosomes may signal heightened dementia risk
98
Neurospheres
clusters of neural stem cells that can differentiate into neurons, astrocytes (glial cell), and oligodendrocytes (glial cells)
