Exam 1

Question 0

What are three types of changes that occur?

Answer 0

Permanent changes; changes that occur normally during development; changes that occur happen in all organisms

Question 1

What is development concerned with?

Answer 1

Progressive changes that occur during the formation of organisms

Question 2

Explain permanent changes

Answer 2

Result in formation of specific structures such as the eye, flower, or limb

Question 3

Describe changes that occur normally during development

Answer 3

Changes are programmed in organisms genome and occur throughout life

Question 4

Describe changes that occur in all organisms

Answer 4

Changes occur in all organisms not just vertebrae’s includes prokaryotes, bacteria, eukaryotes, fungi, plants, and animals

Question 5

What are the multiple levels of development

Answer 5

1) genes 2) macromolecules (proteins, lipids)
3) cells, 4) tissues (groups of cells)
5) organs (tissue arrangement)
6) Whole organism itself

Question 6

What are the six major development questions

Answer 6

1) differentiation
2) morphogenesis/pattern
3) growth
4) reproduction
5) evolution
6) integration of environment

Question 7

Describe the question of differentiation

Answer 7

How do you have a single cell give rise to whole organisms containing all different cell types multiple cell types from one cell
stem cells, how to get a cell to make a particular cell type

Question 8

Describe the question of morphogenesis/pattern

Answer 8

Different cell types arrange in patterns

what are the rules that dictate where cells go

Question 9

Describe the question of growth

Answer 9

Cells divide, increase in size and stop dividing cell size is regulated, what controls this
growth of arm, how some know when to stop dividing
something regulating the growth
uncontrolled cell growth leads to cancer

Question 10

Describe the question of reproduction

Answer 10

Info set aside very early in development for continuation into next-generation
how do we do this, set info aside?

Question 11

Describe the question of evolution

Answer 11

Anything that results in phenotype changes in embryo
Darwins finches- all starts with embryo
can be at structural, genetic, or cellular levels

Question 12

Describe the question of integration of environment

Answer 12

Big impact, why mothers don’t drink, do drugs don’t let kids eat lead paint, can have severe impact on development

Question 13

What are the six common stages/sequence that occurs during development for life cycles

Answer 13

1) fertilization
2) cleavage
3) gastrulation
4) organogenesis
5) larval stage
6) reproduction

Question 14

Describe the lifecycle stage of fertilization

Answer 14

Fertilization is when the sperm meets the egg to form a Diploid organism, form unique gene combination, gametes join

Question 15

Describe the life cycle stage of cleavage

Answer 15

Rapid cell division; single cell organisms ➡️ multiple cellular organism with cleavage
results in a hollow ball of cells known as the blastula

Question 16

Describe the lifecycle stage of gastrulation

Answer 16

Ball begins to fold in on itself
cells move relative to one another
dimple Inward, cells moving in and the gastrulation leaves the three germ layers

Question 17

What are the three germ layers

Answer 17

1) endoderm (inside)
2) ectoderm (outside)
3) mesoderm (between)

Question 18

Describe the lifecycle stage organ formation, organogenesis

Answer 18

Germ layers interacting result in formation of tissue and organs
lots of cell migration -nervous system, somites, muscles

Question 19

Describe what the germ plasm does

Answer 19

The germplasm stays together localized, as embryo develops it ends up in the gonads goes on to form gametes for next-generation

Question 20

What is the Phylotypic stage

Answer 20

It is the stage that is common for all animals in a certain phylum

Question 21

Describe the life cycle larval stage

Answer 21

Immature before they become sexually mature (metamorphosis: frogs, insects)

Question 22

Describe the lifecycle stage of reproduction

Answer 22

Cytoplasm in egg set aside to form germ cells cytoplasm become cells that have the gametes

Question 23

What did Von Baer discover?

Answer 23

After the labels of his embryos came off and he couldn’t tell them apart he realized that there must be a similar stage before organism start to develop differently

Question 24

What did Von Baers realization lead to

Answer 24

Phylotypic- resistant to change genes involved with performing early organs are genes that also have critical functions later in development

Question 25

What did people used to say that's not true?

Answer 25

Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (development shows what's happening before evolution)

Question 26

What is von Baers first law

Answer 26

Phylum characteristics appear before characteristics of more refined groups such as order/class

Question 27

What is von Baers second law

Answer 27

You see more general characteristics of a group of occur before more specialized characteristics do, ectoderm similar in all vertebrae's looks same early on then starts to specialize into hair, scales, feathers

Question 28

What is Von Baers third law

Answer 28

Embryos don't pass through the adult stages of other species

Question 29

What is Von Baers fourth law

Answer 29

Embryos are like the embryos of other species not like the adults

Question 30

Differential gene expression

Answer 30

Nucleus Vs. cytoplasm | different genes expressed in different cell types

Question 31

What are the four differential gene expression levels

Answer 31

1) can control expression of genes at the transcriptional level, production of mRNA from DNA 2) can regulate at post transcriptional level from DNA once RNAs made you can clip out Introns, splice, and transport, expressing mRNA can splice in different ways to make different proteins 3) translational control- production of proteins from mRNA, regulate production of proteins from mRNA 4) post translational level- lots of proteins need to be modified before they are functional clipping/grouping/phosphorylation

Question 32

What is genomic equivalence

Answer 32

Idea that every cell in our body has exactly the same genes

Question 33

What are genetic switches?

Answer 33

?

Question 34

Give 2 examples of how genetic switches can link developmental changes to evolution

Answer 34

?

Question 35

Describe polytene chromosomes in insects

Answer 35

Total RNA produced by any cell is just a small part of genome, 10% of the genome in 1 cell

Question 36

What type of cells in insects duplicate their DNA but don't divide, end up with 100's of 1000's of copies of identical DNA in parallel to each other

Answer 36

Salivary glands

Question 37

What are puff's?

Answer 37

Swollen puffs, DNA portion found in some of the reproducible banding patterns. They occur at different times and in different cell types

Question 38

Describe the first amphibian cloning experiment

Answer 38

Done in Indiana (1950) it showed that you could transfer the nucleus from a blastula at put it into a enucleated egg and it would go on to form a tadpole. This would not work if the nucleus was from a cell that had already differentiated.

Question 39

What got john Gurdon the Nobel prize

Answer 39

He was the first to show that cloning was possible using already differentiated cell nuclei. Using xenopus he took skin from the adult frogs foot and these nuclei when placed in a enucleated cell, produced a tadpole

Question 40

Describe the 1st mammalian cloning

Answer 40

1990's dolly the sheep in Scotland. They used 7 different strains of sheep so they could keep track of the donor and recipients. They arrested cells (used mammary gland cells) at the G0 phase. Put these next to occyte(enucleated) and gave them an electric shock which fused them together. They started to develop and then were placed in a pregnant sheeps uterus

Question 41

What type of cloning was dolly the sheep

Answer 41

Reproductive cloning

Question 42

What type of cloning is used for humans to help with cell deficits?

Answer 42

Therapeutic cloning

Question 43

How do we get DNA from blood if red blood cells have no nucleus?

Answer 43

White blood cells along with some other components do contain nuclei and therefore DNA

Question 44

DNA+protein=

Answer 44

Chromatin

Question 45

Which has more protein, prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

Answer 45

Eukaryotes

Question 46

What are most proteins in eukaryotic nuclei?

Answer 46

Histones

Question 47

What do histones form?

Answer 47

Nucleosome

Question 48

What is the basic unit of chromatin structure?

Answer 48

Nuclesome

Question 49

What are histones composed of?

Answer 49

Octomer, 2 dimers H2A and H2B, 2 dimers of H3 and H4 = 8 total

Question 50

How many Base pairs is a histones DNA strip

Answer 50

140bp's

Question 51

How many bp's is the area of DNA that allows for stabilization?

Answer 51

60bp's

Question 52

What keeps the histones from unwrapping

Answer 52

H2

Question 53

H1 causes the nucleosides to be tightly packed so what cannot or very little can occur?

Answer 53

Transcription

Question 54

What joins nucleosomes together?

Answer 54

Linker DNA

Question 55

What are the histones tails used for?

Answer 55

Groups can join to either loosen or tighten the DNA band around the histone core

Question 56

What does the binding of a acetyl group to a histone tail do?

Answer 56

It loosens the DNA around the core histone which allows for transcription

Question 57

What does the binding of a methyl group to a histone tail do to a nucleosome?

Answer 57

It causes the DNA to bind more tightly preventing transcription

Question 58

What is the nucleosome function

Answer 58

90% of genes are inactive due to being tied up in nucleosomes. In order for transcription to start, you need to remove the nucleosomes ????? Check old note cards